📚 Year 11 Edexcel Science: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 11 Edexcel 科学：公式定理速查手册
This revision handbook brings together all the essential formulas, equations and scientific laws you need for Year 11 Edexcel Science. Covering physics, chemistry and biology, it is designed as a rapid reference to support your exam preparation. Each section presents a key relationship, explains the symbols and units, and reinforces understanding with worked examples where helpful.
这本复习手册汇总了Year 11 Edexcel科学考试中所有必备公式、方程式和科学定律。内容涵盖物理、化学和生物，旨在作为快速查阅工具，帮助你高效备考。每个小节展示一个核心关系式，解释符号和单位，并通过实用示例加深理解。
1. Speed, Distance and Time | 速度、距离与时间
v = d / t
Average speed (v) equals the total distance travelled (d) divided by the time taken (t). Speed is measured in metres per second (m/s), distance in metres (m) and time in seconds (s).
平均速度（v）等于总移动距离（d）除以所用时间（t）。速度单位为米每秒（m/s），距离单位为米（m），时间单位为秒（s）。
Rearrange to find distance: d = v × t. To find time: t = d / v.
变形求距离：d = v × t。求时间：t = d / v。
The gradient (steepness) of a line on a distance–time graph represents speed. A steeper slope means a higher speed.
距离–时间图上的斜率（陡峭程度）代表速度。斜率越大，速度越高。
2. Acceleration | 加速度
a = (v – u) / t
Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity. Final velocity is v, initial velocity is u and t is the time taken for the change. The unit is metres per second squared (m/s²).
加速度（a）是速度变化的快慢。v 为末速度，u 为初速度，t 为变化所用时间。单位为米每平方秒（m/s²）。
You can also calculate final velocity using: v = u + a t.
也可用下式计算末速度：v = u + a t。
In a velocity–time graph, the gradient gives acceleration and the area under the graph gives distance travelled.
在速度–时间图中，斜率表示加速度，图线下的面积表示移动的距离。
3. Newton’s Second Law and Momentum | 牛顿第二定律与动量
F = m × a
The resultant force (F) on an object is equal to its mass (m) multiplied by its acceleration (a). Force is measured in newtons (N), mass in kilograms (kg) and acceleration in m/s².
物体受到的合力（F）等于质量（m）乘以加速度（a）。力单位为牛顿（N），质量单位为千克（kg），加速度单位为 m/s²。
p = m × v
Momentum (p) is the product of mass (m) and velocity (v). Momentum is conserved in a closed system: total momentum before a collision = total momentum after.
动量（p）是质量（m）与速度（v）的乘积。在封闭系统中动量守恒：碰撞前总动量 = 碰撞后总动量。
A larger force or a longer contact time leads to a greater change in momentum (Δp = F × t).
较大的力或较长的作用时间会导致更大的动量变化（Δp = F × t）。
4. Weight, Mass and Gravity | 重量、质量与重力
W = m × g
Weight (W) is the force due to gravity acting on a mass (m). Gravitational field strength (g) on Earth is approximately 9.8 N/kg, but often rounded to 10 N/kg in exams. Weight is measured in newtons (N).
重量（W）是重力作用在质量（m）上的力。地球上的重力场强度（g）约为 9.8 N/kg，考试中常取 10 N/kg。重量单位为牛顿（N）。
Unlike mass, weight varies with location; your mass would stay the same on the Moon, but your weight would be only about 1/6 of that on Earth because the Moon’s gravitational field strength is weaker.
与质量不同，重量随位置变化；在月球上你的质量不变，但重量大约仅为地球上的1/6，因为月球的引力场强度更小。
5. Work, Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy | 功、动能与势能
W = F × d
Work done (W) when a force (F) moves an object through a distance (d) in the direction of the force. Work is measured in joules (J).
力（F）沿着其方向推动物体移动距离（d）时所做的功（W）。功的单位为焦耳（J）。
KE = ½ m v²
Kinetic energy (KE) depends on mass (m) and the square of speed (v). A small increase in speed causes a much larger increase in kinetic energy.
动能（KE）取决于质量（m）和速度的平方（v²）。速度的微小增加会引起动能大幅增加。
ΔGPE = m g h
Change in gravitational potential energy (ΔGPE) when an object of mass m is lifted through a vertical height h. g is the gravitational field strength.
物体质量 m 被抬高竖直高度 h 时，重力势能的变化量（ΔGPE）。g 为重力场强度。
6. Power and Efficiency | 功率与效率
P = E / t or P = W / t
Power (P) is the rate of energy transfer or work done. Energy (E) or work (W) is divided by time (t). The unit of power is the watt (W), where 1 W = 1 J/s.
功率（P）是能量转移或做功的快慢。能量（E）或功（W）除以时间（t）。功率单位为瓦特（W），1 W = 1 J/s。
Efficiency = (Useful output energy / Total input energy) × 100%
Efficiency shows how well a device converts input energy into useful output. No device is 100% efficient because some energy is always lost as heat.
效率反映设备将输入能量转化为有用输出的程度。没有设备能达到100%效率，因为总有一些能量以热的形式散失。
7. Electric Circuits: Ohm’s Law | 电路：欧姆定律
V = I × R
Potential difference (V) across a component equals the current (I) flowing through it multiplied by its resistance (R). Voltage is measured in volts (V), current in amperes (A) and resistance in ohms (Ω).
元件两端的电势差（V）等于流过它的电流（I）乘以电阻（R）。电压单位为伏特（V），电流为安培（A），电阻为欧姆（Ω）。
For an ohmic conductor at constant temperature, the resistance remains constant, producing a straight-line V–I graph.
对于温度恒定的欧姆导体，电阻保持不变，其 V–I 图为一条直线。
Charge (Q) is related to current and time: Q = I × t, where Q is in coulombs (C).
电荷量（Q）与电流和时间有关：Q = I × t，Q 的单位为库仑（C）。
8. Electric Power and Energy | 电功率与电能
P = I × V
Electrical power (P) is the product of current (I) and potential difference (V). It can also be expressed using resistance: P = I² R, and P = V² / R.
电功率（P）是电流（I）与电势差（V）的乘积。也可用电阻表示：P = I² R，以及 P = V² / R。
E = P × t or E = I V t
Energy transferred (E) in an electrical appliance equals power (P) multiplied by the time (t) for which it operates. The unit is the joule (J) or kilowatt-hour (kWh) for larger amounts.
电器中转移的能量（E）等于功率（P）乘以工作时间（t）。单位是焦耳（J），较大能量使用千瓦时（kWh）。
9. Wave Speed | 波速
v = f × λ
Wave speed (v) is the frequency (f) multiplied by the wavelength (λ). Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), wavelength in metres (m) and wave speed in m/s.
波速（v）等于频率（f）乘以波长（λ）。频率单位为赫兹（Hz），波长单位为米（m），波速单位为 m/s。
In transverse waves, particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer. In longitudinal waves, vibrations are parallel to energy transfer.
横波中，质点振动方向与能量传递方向垂直。纵波中，振动方向与能量传递方向平行。
The period (T) of a wave is the time for one complete cycle and is related to frequency: T = 1 / f.
波的周期（T）是完成一个完整循环的时间，与频率的关系为：T = 1 / f。
10. Density | 密度
ρ = m / V
Density (ρ) is mass (m) per unit volume (V). It is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm³). The arrangement of particles explains density differences.
密度（ρ）是单位体积（V）的质量（m）。单位为千克每立方米（kg/m³）或克每立方厘米（g/cm³）。粒子排列方式的差异解释了密度的不同。
Solids usually have high densities because particles are closely packed; gases have very low densities because particles are far apart.
固体通常密度较高因为粒子紧密堆积；气体密度很低因为粒子相距很远。
To find the density of an irregular solid, measure its mass on a balance and its volume by water displacement.
要测量不规则固体的密度，用天平测质量，用排水法测体积。
11. Chemical Quantities: Mole and Concentration | 化学量：摩尔与浓度
n = m / M
Amount of substance in moles (n) equals the mass (m) in grams divided by the molar mass (M) in g/mol. One mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s constant).
物质的量（摩尔，n）等于质量（m，克）除以摩尔质量（M，g/mol）。一摩尔任何物质含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个微粒（阿伏伽德罗常数）。
c = n / V
Concentration (c) of a solution is the number of moles (n) of solute dissolved in 1 dm³ of solution (V). The unit is mol/dm³.
溶液浓度（c）指 1 dm³ 溶液（V）中溶解的溶质摩尔数（n）。单位为 mol/dm³。
The law of conservation of mass states that total mass of reactants equals total mass of products in a chemical reaction.
质量守恒定律指出，化学反应中反应物的总质量等于生成物的总质量。
12. Biological Calculations: Magnification and Cardiac Output | 生物学计算：放大倍率与心输出量
Magnification = Image size / Actual size
Magnification tells you how many times larger an image is compared to the real object. Both sizes must be in the same unit (e.g., mm). A scale bar is often used to work out actual size.
放大倍率表明图像比实际物体放大多少倍。图像大小和实际大小须用同一单位（如 mm）。常用比例尺来计算实际大小。
For example, if an image of a cell measures 50 mm and its actual length is 0.5 mm, magnification = 50 / 0.5 = ×100.
例如，一个细胞的图像长为 50 mm，实际长为 0.5 mm，则放大倍率 = 50 / 0.5 = ×100。
Cardiac output = Stroke volume × Heart rate
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute. Stroke volume is the volume pumped per beat, and heart rate is beats per minute.
心输出量是心脏每分钟泵出的血液量。每搏输出量是每次心跳泵出的血量，心率为每分钟心跳次数。
A fit person often has a lower resting heart rate but a higher stroke volume, delivering the same cardiac output with less effort.
健康的人通常静息心率较低但每搏输出量较高，从而以较少的消耗维持相同的心输出量。
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