📚 Year 11 SQA Psychology: Core Knowledge Summary | SQA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
The SQA National 5 Psychology course gives Year 11 students a broad introduction to the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It is built around three core units: Individual Behaviour, Social Behaviour, and Research. Mastering key concepts, landmark studies, and ethical practices will not only prepare you for the question paper and assignment but will also develop your critical thinking and understanding of everyday behaviour.
SQA 国家 5 级心理学课程为 Year 11 学生提供了行为和心理过程的科学入门。课程围绕三个核心单元构建：个体行为、社会行为和研究。掌握关键概念、里程碑式的研究以及伦理实践，不仅为考试和作业做好准备，还能培养你的批判性思维和对日常行为的理解。
1. Research Methods: Variables and Designs | 研究方法：变量与设计
The independent variable (IV) is the factor the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates. The dependent variable (DV) is the outcome that gets measured to see if the IV has had an effect.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者有意改变或操纵的因素。因变量 (DV) 是被测量的结果，用来观察 IV 是否产生了影响。
A laboratory experiment is conducted in a tightly controlled artificial setting, giving high internal validity but often lacking ecological validity. A field experiment takes place in a natural environment, boosting realism but reducing control over extraneous variables.
实验室实验在严格控制的人工环境中进行，具有较高的内部效度，但通常缺乏生态效度。现场实验在自然环境中进行，提高了真实性，但降低了对额外变量的控制。
Key experimental designs include independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs. Each design must balance participant variables with order effects and demand characteristics.
关键实验设计包括独立组、重复测量和配对组。每种设计必须在参与者变量与顺序效应、需求特征之间取得平衡。
2. Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research | 心理学研究中的伦理规范
Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants, meaning they are told the true aim of the study wherever possible and agree to take part voluntarily. If deception is necessary, a full debrief must follow.
研究者必须获得参与者的知情同意，即尽可能告知研究的真实目的并让其自愿参加。如果欺骗是必要的，必须在事后进行充分的知情解说。
Participants must be protected from physical and psychological harm, and their right to withdraw from the study at any point must be guaranteed. Confidentiality of all personal data is essential.
必须保护参与者免受身体和心理伤害，并保证他们随时退出研究的权利。所有个人数据的保密性至关重要。
The classic study by Milgram on obedience raised serious ethical questions because participants were deceived and exposed to extreme stress, which led to the development of stricter ethical codes.
米尔格拉姆关于服从的经典研究引发了严重的伦理问题，因为参与者受到欺骗并承受了极大压力，这促使了更严格伦理规范的制定。
3. Conformity and Obedience | 从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch’s line-judgement experiment showed that 75% of participants conformed at least once to an obviously wrong majority, demonstrating normative social influence – the desire to fit in.
从众是由于真实或想象的群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。阿希的线段判断实验表明，75% 的参与者至少一次服从了明显错误的多数意见，展示了规范性社会影响——对融入群体的渴望。
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram found that 65% of participants administered the maximum 450-volt shock to a learner simply because an experimenter ordered them to continue. This highlighted the powerful role of situational factors and the agentic state.
服从涉及听从权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆发现，65% 的参与者仅仅因为实验者命令继续，就向学习者施加了最高 450 伏特的电击。这突显了情境因素和代理状态的重要作用。
Informational social influence occurs when we conform because we believe the group is correct, especially in ambiguous situations. This differs from normative influence, which is about acceptance.
信息性社会影响发生在我们因相信群体是正确的而遵从时，尤其是在模棱两可的情境下。这与规范性影响不同，后者是为了被接纳。
4. Prejudice and Discrimination | 偏见与歧视
Prejudice is an unjustified, usually negative attitude toward an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. Discrimination is the actual behaviour that treats people unfairly because of their group membership.
偏见是一种不合理且通常消极的态度，仅基于个体所属的社会群体。歧视则是因群体身份而不公平地对待他人的实际行为。
The realistic conflict theory, illustrated by Sherif’s Robbers Cave experiment, argues that competition for scarce resources can create intergroup hostility and prejudice. Superordinate goals, which require cooperation, can reduce this conflict.
现实冲突理论，正如谢里夫的罗伯斯洞穴实验所示，认为对稀缺资源的竞争会引发群体间的敌意和偏见。需要合作才能实现的超级目标则可以减少这种冲突。
Social identity theory (Tajfel) suggests that simply categorising people into ingroups and outgroups is enough to produce prejudice, as we boost our self-esteem by favouring our own group and degrading the outgroup.
社会认同理论（塔杰费尔）认为，仅仅将人们划分为内群体和外群体就足以产生偏见，因为我们通过偏袒自己所属的群体并贬低外群体来提升自尊。
5. Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval | 记忆：编码、存储与提取
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) describes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves between stores through attention and rehearsal.
记忆的多重存储模型（阿特金森和希夫林）描述了三个独立的存储库：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述在存储库之间移动。
STM has a limited capacity of around 7 items (plus or minus 2) and a duration of about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. LTM has unlimited capacity and duration, mainly encoding information semantically.
STM 的容量有限，约为 7 个项目（±2），在不复述的情况下持续时间大约为 18-30 秒。LTM 拥有无限的容量和持续时间，主要以语义形式编码信息。
Forgetting can occur because of decay (memory traces fade) or interference. Proactive interference happens when old learning disrupts new recall, while retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts old recall.
遗忘可能是由于消退（记忆痕迹淡化）或干扰而发生的。前摄干扰发生在旧知识干扰新知识回忆时，而倒摄干扰发生在新知识干扰旧知识回忆时。
6. Sleep and Dreaming | 睡眠与做梦
Sleep follows a repeating cycle of about 90 minutes, moving through NREM stages (1–3) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep is associated with vivid dreaming, increased brain activity, and muscle paralysis.
睡眠遵循约 90 分钟一个循环的周期，在非快速眼动 (NREM) 阶段（1-3）和快速眼动 (REM) 睡眠之间交替。REM 睡眠与生动的梦境、大脑活动增强及肌肉麻痹有关。
The restoration theory (Oswald) argues that we sleep to repair physical and brain tissue. During NREM sleep, the body repairs cells and strengthens the immune system, while REM sleep restores brain neurotransmitters.
恢复理论（奥斯瓦尔德）认为，我们睡眠是为了修复身体和大脑组织。在 NREM 睡眠期间，身体修复细胞并增强免疫系统，而 REM 睡眠则恢复大脑神经递质。
The activation-synthesis model of dreaming (Hobson & McCarley) proposes that dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural signals generated during REM. Freud’s wish-fulfilment theory offers a contrasting psychodynamic perspective.
梦的激活-合成模型（霍布森和麦卡利）提出，梦境是大脑尝试解读 REM 期间产生的随机神经信号的结果。弗洛伊德的愿望满足理论则提供了一个截然不同的心理动力学视角。
7. Stress and Coping Strategies | 压力与应对策略
Stress is the physical and psychological response to perceived demands or threats. The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model by Selye describes three stages: alarm (fight or flight activation), resistance (coping), and exhaustion (resources depleted).
压力是对感知到的要求或威胁的生理和心理反应。塞利的一般适应综合征 (GAS) 模型描述了三个阶段的压力反应：警戒阶段（战或逃反应激活）、抵抗阶段（应对）和衰竭阶段（资源耗尽）。
The transactional model (Lazarus) emphasises cognitive appraisal. Primary appraisal evaluates whether a situation is a threat, and secondary appraisal assesses our ability to cope. This process determines the intensity of the stress response.
交互作用模型（拉扎勒斯）强调认知评价。初级评价评估情境是否构成威胁，次级评价评估我们的应对能力。这一过程决定了压力反应的强度。
Problem-focused coping aims to address the stressor directly (e.g., creating a revision timetable). Emotion-focused coping tries to manage the emotional distress (e.g., talking to a friend). Both can be adaptive in different situations.
问题导向的应对策略旨在直接处理压力源（例如制定复习计划）。情绪导向的应对策略则试图管理情绪困扰（例如与朋友交谈）。两者在不同情境下都可以是适应性的。
8. Phobias and Behavioural Explanations | 恐惧症与行为解释
A phobia is an irrational, persistent fear of an object or situation accompanied by a compelling desire to avoid it. The behavioural approach explains phobias as learned responses through classical conditioning.
恐惧症是一种对物体或情境的非理性、持续性的恐惧，并伴随着强烈的回避欲望。行为主义方法将恐惧症解释为通过经典条件作用习得的反应。
The Little Albert study (Watson & Rayner) showed how a fear of a white rat was conditioned by pairing the rat with a loud, frightening noise. This process of association is the basis of many specific phobias.
小阿尔伯特研究（华生和雷诺）展示了如何通过将白鼠与巨大的可怕噪音配对来条件化其对白鼠的恐惧。这种关联过程是许多特定恐惧症的基础。
Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning – avoiding the feared object is negatively reinforcing because it reduces anxiety. Treatment uses principles of learning: systematic desensitisation gradually pairs relaxation with a fear hierarchy, while flooding involves immediate, prolonged exposure.
恐惧症通过操作性条件作用得以维持——回避恐惧对象因减轻焦虑而得到负强化。治疗运用学习原理：系统脱敏法逐步将放松与恐惧层级配对，而暴露疗法则涉及即时、长时间的暴露。
9. Nature vs Nurture Debate | 先天与后天之争
The nature–nurture debate concerns whether behaviour is determined more by biological inheritance (nature) or by environment and experience (nurture). Psychologists take an interactionist position, recognising that both factors work together.
先天与后天之争关注的是行为更多由生物遗传（先天）决定，还是由环境和经验（后天）决定。心理学家采取交互论立场，承认两者共同作用。
Twin studies are widely used to separate genetic and environmental effects. If monozygotic (identical) twins show higher concordance for a trait than dizygotic (fraternal) twins, this suggests a strong genetic component. Adoption studies further isolate environmental influences.
双胞胎研究被广泛用于区分遗传和环境效应。如果同卵双胞胎在某一特质上的一致率高于异卵双胞胎，这就表明存在较强的遗传成分。收养研究则进一步分离了环境影响。
The nature argument is supported by evidence on genetic predispositions for disorders like schizophrenia. The nurture argument is strengthened by social learning theory, which shows how aggression can be acquired through observation and reinforcement.
先天论得到精神分裂症等障碍遗传易感性证据的支持。后天论则因社会学习理论而得到加强，后者表明攻击行为如何通过观察和强化而习得。
10. Aggression and Altruism | 攻击与利他行为
Aggression is behaviour intended to harm another person. Biological explanations highlight the role of the limbic system, testosterone, and low serotonin, while the social learning theory (Bandura) emphasises imitation of aggressive role models and reinforcement.
攻击行为是意图伤害他人的行为。生物学解释强调边缘系统、睾酮和低血清素的作用，而社会学习理论（班杜拉）则强调对攻击性榜样的模仿和强化。
The Bobo doll study showed that children who watched an adult model behaving aggressively toward a doll were more likely to replicate the aggression, especially if the model was rewarded. This supports the idea that behaviour can be learned without direct reinforcement.
波波娃娃实验表明，观看了成人榜样对娃娃进行攻击性行为的孩子更有可能复制这种攻击行为，尤其是当榜样得到奖励时。这支持了行为无需直接强化即可习得的观点。
Altruism is helping behaviour performed for the benefit of others, sometimes at personal cost. The bystander effect (Latane and Darley) reveals that the greater the number of people present, the less likely any one individual is to help, due to diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.
利他行为是为了他人利益，有时甚至以个人代价进行的帮助行为。旁观者效应（拉坦和达利）揭示，在场人数越多，任何一个个体提供帮助的可能性越小，原因在于责任分散和多元无知。
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