📚 Year 11 WJEC Accounting: Formulae and Theorems Quick Reference Handbook | Year 11 WJEC 会计：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your essential quick reference for WJEC Year 11 Accounting. This handbook compiles all the key formulae, ratios, and accounting theorems you need to memorise for your exams, covering everything from the accounting equation to depreciation, bad debts, and inventory valuation. Use it alongside your revision notes to check definitions and calculations instantly.
欢迎使用 WJEC Year 11 会计必备速查手册。本手册汇集了你为考试需要记忆的所有关键公式、比率和会计定理，涵盖会计等式、折旧、坏账和存货估值等全部内容。请与你的复习笔记结合使用，以便随时查阅定义和计算。
1. The Accounting Equation | 会计等式
The accounting equation is the bedrock of the double-entry system. It shows the relationship between what a business owns, owes, and the owner’s stake.
会计等式是复式记账体系的基石。它展示了企业拥有的资产、所欠负债和所有者权益之间的关系。
Assets are resources controlled by the business (e.g. cash, inventory, equipment) that are expected to bring future economic benefits.
资产是企业控制的资源（如现金、存货、设备），预期能带来未来经济利益。
Liabilities are the business’s present obligations to transfer economic resources (e.g. bank loans, trade payables).
负债是企业承担的现时义务，需转移经济资源（如银行贷款、应付账款）。
Equity is the residual interest in the assets after deducting all liabilities, representing the owner’s capital and retained profits.
权益是资产扣除所有负债后的剩余权益，代表所有者投入的资本和留存利润。
Assets = Liabilities + Equity
This equation must always balance because every transaction affects at least two elements, keeping the dual aspect intact.
该等式必须始终保持平衡，因为每笔交易至少影响两个要素，维护了双重性原则。
2. Double Entry Rules | 复式记账规则
Double entry bookkeeping states that every transaction has a dual effect: for each debit there must be an equal and opposite credit.
复式记账法指出，每笔交易都有双重影响：对于每一笔借方分录，必定有一笔等额的反向贷方分录。
The following rules govern how different types of accounts increase and decrease:
以下规则决定了不同类型账户如何增加和减少：
Assets: Debit to increase, Credit to decrease.
资产：借方增加，贷方减少。
Liabilities: Credit to increase, Debit to decrease.
负债：贷方增加，借方减少。
Capital/Equity: Credit to increase, Debit to decrease.
资本/权益：贷方增加，借方减少。
Income/Revenue: Credit to increase, Debit to decrease.
收入：贷方增加，借方减少。
Expenses: Debit to increase, Credit to decrease.
费用：借方增加，贷方减少。
Remember: the total value of debit entries must always equal the total value of credit entries in the ledger.
请记住：分类账中借方金额总额必须始终等于贷方金额总额。
3. Calculating Profit | 利润计算
Profit is the key measure of a business’s performance. Two critical levels of profit are calculated in the income statement.
利润是衡量企业业绩的关键指标。利润表中计算两个关键的利润层次。
Gross Profit shows the profit generated purely from trading activities before overheads are deducted.
毛利显示在扣除间接费用之前纯粹由经营活动产生的利润。
Gross Profit = Sales Revenue – Cost of Sales
Cost of Sales usually includes opening inventory plus purchases minus closing inventory.
销售成本通常包括期初存货加采购减期末存货。
Net Profit (also called profit for the year) reveals the final profit after all operating expenses, other income, and finance costs are accounted for.
净利（亦称年度利润）揭示了扣除所有营业费用、其他收益和财务成本后的最终利润。
Net Profit = Gross Profit + Other Income – Total Expenses
If a business has no other income, this simplifies to: Net Profit = Gross Profit – Expenses.
如果企业没有其他收益，公式简化为：净利 = 毛利 – 费用。
These figures feed directly into profitability ratios.
这些数值直接用于计算盈利能力比率。
4. Profitability Ratios | 盈利能力比率
Profitability ratios assess how effectively a business turns sales into profit and how well it uses its capital.
盈利能力比率用于评估企业将销售转化为利润的效率以及资本的使用效果。
Gross Profit Margin measures the percentage of sales revenue remaining after paying for the cost of goods sold. A higher margin indicates better control over production costs or pricing power.
毛利率衡量销售收入在支付销货成本后剩余的百分比。比率越高，说明对生产成本或定价权的控制越好。
Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Sales Revenue) × 100
Net Profit Margin shows the percentage of sales revenue that ends up as net profit after all expenses. It is the ultimate indicator of overall expense management.
净利率显示销售收入在扣除所有费用后最终成为净利的百分比。它是衡量整体费用管理的终极指标。
Net Profit Margin = (Net Profit ÷ Sales Revenue) × 100
Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) is particularly useful for comparing profitability with the size of investment. It is often expressed as a percentage.
运用资本回报率 (ROCE) 特别适用于将盈利能力与投资规模进行比较，通常以百分比表示。
ROCE = (Net Profit before Interest and Tax ÷ Capital Employed) × 100
In Year 11, capital employed may be simplified to total equity plus non-current liabilities, or as total assets minus current liabilities. Always look for the formula given in the exam.
在 Year 11 阶段，运用资本可能简化为总权益加非流动负债，或总资产减流动负债。请始终以考题提供的公式为准。
5. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios indicate a business’s ability to meet its short-term obligations as they fall due. Two fundamental ratios are tested regularly.
流动性比率反映企业在债务到期时偿还短期债务的能力。两个基本比率经常被考查。
Current Ratio compares total current assets with current liabilities. A ratio of around 1.5:1 to 2:1 is generally considered healthy, though this depends on the industry.
流动比率将总流动资产与流动负债进行比较。一般认为 1.5:1 至 2:1 左右的比率较为健康，具体视行业而定。
Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
Acid Test (Quick) Ratio removes inventory from current assets because inventory is not always easily convertible to cash. It provides a stricter test of liquidity.
速动比率（酸性测试比率）将存货从流动资产中剔除，因为存货并不总能轻易变现，提供了更严格的流动性检验。
Acid Test Ratio = (Current Assets – Inventory) ÷ Current Liabilities
Interpretation: a quick ratio of 1:1 or above is usually satisfactory, but a very high ratio may indicate inefficient use of cash.
解读：速动比率达到 1:1 或以上通常较为理想，但比率过高可能表明现金利用效率低下。
6. Efficiency Ratios | 效率比率
Efficiency ratios examine how well a business manages its inventory and its credit dealings with customers and suppliers.
效率比率考察企业如何有效管理存货以及与客户和供应商的信用往来。
Inventory Turnover (times) tells us how many times inventory is sold and replaced over a period. A higher turnover suggests efficient stock management, but watch out for possible stock-outs.
存货周转率（次数）告诉我们一段时间内存货被销售并重置的次数。周转率越高，说明库存管理越高效，但要警惕缺货风险。
Inventory Turnover = Cost of Sales ÷ Average Inventory
where Average Inventory = (Opening Inventory + Closing Inventory) ÷ 2.
其中平均存货 =（期初存货 + 期末存货）÷ 2。
Inventory Turnover in Days converts the ratio into the average number of days inventory is held before being sold.
存货周转天数将比率转换为存货在售出前持有的平均天数。
Inventory Turnover (days) = (Average Inventory ÷ Cost of Sales) × 365
Trade Receivables Days measures how quickly, on average, customers pay their debts. Fewer days mean better credit control.
应收账款周转天数衡量客户平均还款的速度。天数越少，表示信用控制越好。
Trade Receivables Days = (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365
Trade Payables Days shows how long the business takes to pay its suppliers. A very long period may strain supplier relationships, while a very short period may mean missing out on interest-free credit.
应付账款周转天数显示企业向供应商付款所需的时间。天数过长可能损害供应商关系，过短则可能错失免息信用期。
Trade Payables Days = (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365
These ratios help analysts spot trends and compare performance year on year.
这些比率有助于分析者发现趋势并进行逐年比较。
7. Depreciation Methods | 折旧方法
Depreciation allocates the cost of a non-current asset over its useful life, following the accruals (matching) concept.
折旧按照权责发生制（配比）概念，将非流动资产的成本在其使用寿命内进行分摊。
Straight-Line Method charges an equal amount of depreciation each year. It is simple and suitable for assets that provide steady benefits.
直线法每年计提相等的折旧额。方法简单，适用于提供稳定收益的资产。
Annual Depreciation (Straight Line) = (Cost – Residual Value) ÷ Useful Life
Reducing Balance Method applies a fixed percentage to the net book value (cost minus accumulated depreciation) each year, resulting in higher depreciation charges in the early years of the asset’s life.
余额递减法每年对账面净值（成本减累计折旧）采用一个固定的百分比，使得资产使用前期折旧费用较高。
Annual Depreciation (Reducing Balance) = Net Book Value × Depreciation Rate (%)
The reducing balance rate is calculated so that the asset’s net book value at the end of its life equals the residual value. At Year 11, the rate is normally given in the exam or can be derived from the useful life using an approximate formula.
余额递减法的折旧率需使得资产使用寿命结束时的账面净值等于残值。在 Year 11 阶段，考题通常会直接给出折旧率，或者可以根据使用年限大致推算。
Always deduct accumulated depreciation from the cost to find Net Book Value for the balance sheet.
在资产负债表中，始终从成本中减去累计折旧，得出账面净值。
8. Bad Debts and Provision for Doubtful Debts | 坏账与呆账准备
Bad debts occur when a credit customer is unable to pay. The matching principle requires that an expense be recognised as soon as the debt is deemed irrecoverable, or that a provision be created for expected future losses.
坏账发生在赊销客户无力付款时。根据配比原则，一旦债务确认无法收回，就得确认为费用，或者应为预期的未来损失计提准备。
Bad Debts Written Off: When a specific customer’s balance is considered uncollectable, the full amount is removed from trade receivables and charged to the income statement as an expense.
坏账核销：当某位客户的应收账款被认定为无法收回时，全额从应收账款中转出，并在利润表中确认为费用。
Provision for Doubtful Debts is an estimate of potential future bad debts. It is created to avoid overstating trade receivables and profit. The adjustment in the income statement is only the change in the provision.
呆账准备是对未来可能坏账的估计。设置准备是为了避免高估应收账款和利润。利润表中只确认准备金的变化额。
Increase in Provision = Required Provision at Year End – Existing Provision
If the required provision is lower than the existing provision, a decrease is credited to the income statement (reducing expenses). The required provision is often calculated as a percentage of trade receivables or using an ageing analysis.
如果所需准备金低于现有准备，则减少额贷记利润表（减少费用）。所需准备金通常按应收账款的一定百分比计算，或使用账龄分析法确定。
Trade receivables shown on the statement of financial position are always net of both bad debts written off and the provision for doubtful debts.
财务状况表上列示的应收账款始终是扣除了已核销坏账和呆账准备后的净额。
9. Inventory Valuation Methods | 存货估值方法
Inventory must be valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value (NRV). When prices fluctuate, we need a flow assumption to determine the cost of goods sold and closing inventory. Two common methods appear at Year 11 WJEC.
存货必须按成本与可变现净值（NRV）孰低计价。当价格波动时，我们需要一个流转假设来确定销货成本和期末存货。Year 11 WJEC 会涉及两种常见方法。
First In, First Out (FIFO) assumes that the oldest inventory items are sold first. Closing inventory is therefore valued using the most recent purchase prices, which closely reflects current market value during inflation.
先进先出法 (FIFO) 假定最先购入的存货最先售出，因此期末存货采用最近的采购价格计价，在通胀期间更能反映当前市场价值。
Weighted Average Cost (AVCO) calculates an average cost per unit each time a purchase is made. Both cost of sales and closing inventory are valued at this average cost.
加权平均成本法 (AVCO) 在每次采购后计算单位平均成本，销货成本和期末存货均按此平均成本计价。
Average Cost per Unit = Total Cost of Inventory Available ÷ Total Units Available
After calculating average cost, use it to value closing inventory and cost of sales. Both methods are acceptable, but they produce different profit and inventory figures; the question will specify which method to apply.
计算出平均成本后，用以对期末存货和销货成本计价。两种方法均可接受，但会产生不同的利润和存货数据；考题会指定使用哪种方法。
Regardless of the method, always check whether any items have a net realisable value below their cost. If so, write down the inventory to NRV by creating an inventory provision.
无论采用哪种方法，都需检查是否有存货的可变现净值低于成本。如果是，则需计提存货跌价准备，将存货减记至净可变现价值。
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