📚 A-Level Psychology WJEC Year 12 Key Terminology Memory Guide | WJEC 心理学 A-Level 第一年关键术语速记指南
This guide breaks down the most important psychological terms you will encounter in your Year 12 WJEC course, with quick memory hooks for each one. Whether you are revising for the Unit 1 approaches or the Unit 2 research methods paper, clear definitions and clever mnemonics will help you retrieve the right terminology under exam pressure.
本指南拆解了你在 WJEC 第一年课程中将遇到的最重要的心理学术语，并为每一个提供了快速记忆的钩子。无论你是在复习第一单元的各种心理学取向，还是第二单元的研究方法考查内容，清晰的定义和机敏的助记口诀都能帮助你在大考压力下回想起正确的术语。
1. Research Methods Essentials | 研究方法基础
Aim: The general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. Think of the aim as the ‘destination’ of the research journey. Memory hook: ‘AIM – Ask, I, Myself, what is the purpose?’
研究目的 (Aim)：研究者意图探究什么的总体陈述。可以把研究目的想象成研究旅途的“终点”。记忆钩子：“目的——你究竟想问什么？”
Hypothesis: A precise, testable prediction about the expected outcome of a study. It often states how the independent variable will affect the dependent variable. Memory hook: ‘Hypothesis = Has Predicted Something’. Remember: a good hypothesis is operationalised, not vague.
假设 (Hypothesis)：关于研究预期结果的精确、可验证的预测。它通常陈述自变量将如何影响因变量。记忆钩子：“假设——预先设立的猜想”。记住：一个好的假设必须是操作化的，而非模糊的。
Null hypothesis: A statement of no difference or no correlation; it is what the statistical test tries to disprove. Students often forget this one. Trick: ‘Null means Nil – nothing is going on’.
虚无假设 (Null hypothesis)：陈述没有差异或没有相关的命题；它是统计检验试图推翻的假设。学生经常忘记这个术语。窍门：“虚无就是零——啥事都没发生”。
Directional (one-tailed) vs non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis: A directional hypothesis predicts a specific direction of the effect, while a non-directional hypothesis simply predicts an effect. Memory aid: direction = arrow, one-way street; non-directional = open on both sides.
方向性（单尾）与非方向性（双尾）假设：方向性假设预测了效应的具体方向，而非方向性假设仅预测存在效应。助记：方向 = 箭头，单行道；非方向 = 两边都开放。
2. Biological Approach Terminology | 生物心理学方法术语
Cortisol: A hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. It is easy to remember by linking to ‘the C in stress’: C for both Cortisol and Crisis. High cortisol impairs memory consolidation.
皮质醇 (Cortisol)：应激时由肾上腺释放的激素。可以将它与“应激中的 C”联系起来：C 既代表 Cortisol 也代表 Crisis（危机）。高皮质醇会损害记忆巩固。
Genotype vs Phenotype: Genotype is the set of genes an individual carries; phenotype is the observable traits resulting from the interaction of genes and environment. Put simply: ‘Genotype = the code (G for genetic code); Phenotype = what you can see (P for physical)’.
基因型与表现型：基因型是个体携带的一整套基因；表现型是基因与环境交互作用所产生的可观察特征。简单地说：“基因型 = 代码（G 代表 genetic code）；表现型 = 你能看见什么（P 代表 physical）”。
Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger that transmits signals across a synapse. For example, serotonin is linked to mood. Recall: ‘Neuro-trans-mitter – transmits across the neural gap’.
神经递质 (Neurotransmitter)：跨越突触传递信号的化学信使。例如，血清素与情绪有关。回想：“神经·递·质——在神经间隙递送化学质”。
Sympathetic nervous system: Activates the fight-or-flight response. Memory trick: ‘Sympathetic = Speed up in a Scary Situation’. It raises heart rate and diverts blood to muscles.
交感神经系统 (Sympathetic nervous system)：激活战或逃反应。记忆窍门：“交感——在惊吓情境下加速”。它提高心率并将血液转向肌肉。
Localisation of function: The idea that specific brain areas are responsible for specific functions, e.g., Broca’s area for speech production. Think of the brain as a ‘department store’: each floor (area) handles a different product.
功能定位 (Localisation of function)：特定的脑区负责特定的功能，例如布洛卡区负责语言产生。可将大脑想象成“百货商店”：每一层（脑区）处理不同的商品。
3. Cognitive Approach: Memory & Thinking | 认知方法：记忆与思维
Encoding: The process of changing sensory input into a form that can be stored. Visual encoding creates a mental picture; acoustic encoding uses sound; semantic encoding uses meaning. Mnemonic: ‘Every Autumn Squirrels Store nuts’ – Encoding, Acoustic, Semantic, Sensory.
编码 (Encoding)：将感觉输入转换成可存储形式的过程。视觉编码形成心理图像；听觉编码使用声音；语义编码凭借意义。助记：“编码——改写信息格式以便入库”。
Capacity: The amount of information a memory store can hold. Short-term memory (STM) famously holds 7±2 items. Miller’s magic number: ‘Seven, plus or minus two – like a telephone number without an area code’.
容量 (Capacity)：记忆仓库能容纳的信息量。短时记忆（STM）著名的容量是 7±2 个项目。米勒的魔法数字：“七加减二——就如没有区号的电话号码”。
Duration: The length of time information remains in a memory store. STM lasts about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal, while long-term memory can last a lifetime. Remember: ‘Duration = how long, not how short’.
持续时间 (Duration)：信息在记忆仓库中保留的时间长度。短时记忆不经复述约可保持 18-30 秒，而长时记忆能持续一生。记住：“持续时间问的是‘多久’，而非‘多短’”。
Schema: A cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information. Schemas can lead to distortions in memory. Think of a ‘schematic’ of a city map – it simplifies and sometimes misses details.
图式 (Schema)：帮助组织和解释信息的认知框架。图式会导致记忆扭曲。想象一张城市地图的“简图”——它简化了信息，有时会遗漏细节。
4. Behaviourist Approach: Learning & Conditioning | 行为主义方法：学习与条件作用
Classical conditioning: Learning through association, famously studied by Pavlov with dogs. An unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation); after pairing with a neutral stimulus (bell), the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Mnemonic: ‘Before conditioning: UCS–UCR; After conditioning: CS–CR. Keep the pairs straight.’
经典条件作用 (Classical conditioning)：通过联想进行的学习，以巴甫洛夫的狗最为著名。无条件刺激（食物）引发无条件反应（分泌唾液）；中性刺激（铃声）与之配对后，铃声变成条件刺激，引发条件反应。助记：“条件作用前：UCS–UCR；条件作用后：CS–CR。配对别搞混。”
Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences, proposed by Skinner. Positive reinforcement adds a reward to increase behaviour; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour. Key distinction: reinforcement always wants to strengthen behaviour; punishment wants to weaken it.
操作条件作用 (Operant conditioning)：通过后果进行的学习，由斯金纳提出。正强化增加奖励以提升行为频率；负强化移除不愉快刺激以提升行为频率；惩罚则用以减少行为。核心区别：强化总是想增强行为；惩罚想削弱行为。
Continuous vs partial reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement means every response is rewarded; partial reinforcement means only some responses are rewarded, which makes behaviour more resistant to extinction. Think of a slot machine: it pays out on a partial schedule, so you keep playing.
连续强化与部分强化：连续强化意味着每次反应都得到奖励；部分强化意味着只有部分反应受到奖励，这使得行为更难以消退。想一想老虎机：它按部分时间表吐钱，于是你不停地玩下去。
5. Psychodynamic Approach: Mind & Defences | 精神分析方法：心理与防御
Unconscious mind: According to Freud, the part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not directly accessible to conscious awareness but influence behaviour. The iceberg analogy: the conscious mind is the tip; the unconscious is the vast hidden mass below water.
潜意识 (Unconscious mind)：根据弗洛伊德，包含不为意识直接所及，却能影响行为的思想、记忆和欲望的那部分心理。冰山比喻：意识只是露出水面的尖顶；潜意识是水下隐藏的巨大冰山主体。
Id, Ego, Superego: The id operates on the pleasure principle (I want it now), the superego on the morality principle (you must be perfect), and the ego balances the two on the reality principle. Easiest way: ‘Id = Infant; Superego = Saint; Ego = the adult mediator.’
本我、自我、超我：本我遵循快乐原则（我现在就要），超我遵循道德原则（你必须完美），自我按现实原则平衡二者。最简单的方法：“本我 = 婴儿；超我 = 圣人；自我 = 成年调解人。”
Defence mechanism: Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety, such as repression (pushing painful memories into the unconscious) and displacement (redirecting emotions onto a safer target). Repression is like ‘stuffing things into a locked drawer’. Displacement is like ‘kicking the cat when you are really angry with your boss’.
防御机制 (Defence mechanism)：自我使用的无意识策略，以减少焦虑，例如压抑（将痛苦记忆推入潜意识）和转移（把情绪转向较安全的目标）。压抑好比“把东西塞进锁着的抽屉”；转移就如同“跟老板生气却去踢猫”。
6. Positive Psychology: Well-Being & Flow | 积极心理学：幸福与心流
Flow: A state of complete immersion and involvement in an activity, characterised by intense concentration, loss of self-consciousness, and a distorted sense of time. Csikszentmihalyi’s concept. ‘Flow like a river – fully carried away.’
心流 (Flow)：完全沉浸于某项活动的状态，特征为高度专注、失去自我意识以及时间感扭曲。契克森米哈赖的概念。“心流如流水——全情投入、被带走。”
Signature strengths: Personal traits that are most central to an individual’s identity and, when used, produce authenticity and energy. Think of your ‘signature’ on a cheque – it is uniquely you. Using them boosts well-being.
标志性强项 (Signature strengths)：对个体身份最核心的个人特质，运用这些特质会产生真实感与能量。想想你在支票上的“签名”——那独一无二地代表你。使用它们能提升幸福感。
Subjective well-being: A person’s cognitive and affective evaluation of their life. It includes life satisfaction and the balance of positive to negative affect. ‘Happiness by your own report – subjective means from the subject’s view.’
主观幸福感 (Subjective well-being)：一个人对自己生活的认知与情感评价，包括生活满意度以及积极与消极情感的平衡。“自己报告的幸福——主观就是从主体的视角出发。”
7. Ethical Considerations in Research | 研究中的伦理考量
Informed consent: Participants must be told the true nature and purpose of the research (where possible) and agree to take part. For under-16s, parental consent is needed. Remember: ‘Informed = you know; consent = you say yes.’
知情同意 (Informed consent)：参与者必须被告知研究的真实性质与目的（在可能的情况下）并同意参与。16岁以下需要家长同意。记住：“知情 = 你了解；同意 = 你点头。”
Deception: Misleading participants or withholding information. It should be avoided unless absolutely necessary, and a full debrief must follow. You can recall: ‘Deception = deliberately deceiving; debrief must de-mystify after.’
欺骗 (Deception)：误导参与者或隐瞒信息。除非绝对必要，否则应避免使用；而且事后必须进行完整的解释说明。可以这样记：“欺骗是刻意隐瞒；事后必须解释揭晓。”
Right to withdraw: Participants may leave the study at any time without giving a reason, and their data should be removed. This is the ‘escape hatch’ – always available, no pressure.
退出权利 (Right to withdraw)：参与者可以随时退出研究，无需给出理由，其数据也应被移除。这是“逃生舱门”——始终可用，无任何压力。
Confidentiality: Personal data must be protected and not shared without permission. Usually, numbers replace names. Think ‘confidential files are locked away’.
保密 (Confidentiality)：必须保护个人数据，未经允许不得外泄。通常用编号代替姓名。想象“机密档案被锁起来”。
8. Experimental Design & Variables | 实验设计与变量
Independent variable (IV): The factor that is deliberately manipulated by the researcher. ‘I change the IV to See the DV.’ IV = I Vary.
自变量 (Independent variable, IV)：由研究者特意操纵的因素。“我改变 IV 去观察 DV 的变化。”IV = I Vary（我改变）。
Dependent variable (DV): The factor that is measured; the outcome depends on the IV. DV = Data Value.
因变量 (Dependent variable, DV)：被测量的因素；结果依赖于自变量。DV = 数据值。
Extraneous variable: Any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV if not controlled. These become confounding variables if they systematically vary with the IV. Remember: ‘Strangers you need to control, or they become Confounders.’
额外变量 (Extraneous variable)：除 IV 外任何可能影响 DV 的变量，若不控制就会变成混淆变量。记住：“需要控制的外部陌生人，否则他们变成搅局者。”
Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs: Three basic experimental designs. Independent groups: different participants in each condition; repeated measures: same participants in all conditions; matched pairs: different but matched participants. Mnemonic: ‘IRM – I Reckon Matched is hardest.’
独立组、重复测量、配对组：三种基本实验设计。独立组：每个条件使用不同参与者；重复测量：所有条件使用同一批参与者；配对组：不同但经过匹配的参与者。助记：“IRM—独立组容易混，重复测可能顺序效应，配对组最难设计。”
9. Data Handling & Descriptive Statistics | 数据处理与描述统计
Mean, Median, Mode: The mean is the arithmetic average; the median is the middle score when data are ordered; the mode is the most frequent score. To avoid confusion, sing: ‘Mean is mean – adds up and divides; Median is the middle – one in the middle; Mode is the most – that’s the host.’
平均数、中位数、众数：平均数（均值）是算术平均；中位数是排序后居中的数值；众数是出现最频繁的数值。为了避免混淆，可唱出来：“平均数，算总和再除；中位数，排在正中；众数，出现次数最多。”
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values. It is a crude measure of dispersion. Do not forget: it is just ‘max minus min’.
全距 (Range)：最大值与最小值之差。它是一种粗略的离中趋势指标。别忘了：它就是“最大值减最小值”。
Standard deviation: A more precise measure of how spread out scores are around the mean. A low SD means data cluster tightly around the mean; a high SD indicates a wide spread. Think: ‘Standard deviation shows how ‘deviant’ the spread is.’
标准差 (Standard deviation)：更精确地反映分数围绕均值的分散程度。低标准差意味着数据紧密围绕均值；高标准差则表明分散广。这样想：“标准差告诉你数据有多‘离经叛道’。”
10. Inferential Statistics & Significance | 推论统计与显著性
Probability (p) value: The likelihood that the results occurred by chance. In psychology, the conventional significance level is p < 0.05 (less than 5% probability of a chance result). Remember: 'If p is low, the null must go!'
概率值（p 值）：结果由偶然因素引起的可能性。在心理学中，惯例的显著性水平是 p < 0.05（偶然发生的概率小于 5%）。记住：“p 值低，虚无假设就得走！”
Type I error: A false positive – rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true. Think of a ‘fire alarm that rings when there is no fire’ (I for ‘I see fire when there is none’).
第一类错误 (Type I error)：假阳性——虚无假设为真却拒绝了它。想象“没有火却响了的火警”（第一类：误以为有火）。
Type II error: A false negative – failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. Think of ‘a smoke detector that fails to go off during a real fire’ (II for ‘I Ignore the real fire’).
第二类错误 (Type II error)：假阴性——虚无假设为假却未能拒绝它。想象“真着火却不响的烟雾探测器”（第二类：无视真实的火）。
Sign test, Chi-squared, Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon: You only need to name the appropriate inferential test based on design and data type. A brief checklist helps: test of difference or correlation? Independent groups or repeated measures? Nominal, ordinal or interval data? Work through this, and you will pick the correct test.
符号检验、卡方、曼-惠特尼、威尔科克森：你只需根据实验设计及数据类型选出恰当的推论检验方法。简单的检核表：检验差异还是相关？独立组还是重复测量？名义、顺序还是等距数据？逐条核对，你便能选对检验。
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