📚 Year 11 Eduqas Law: Essential Terminology Quick Revision Guide | Year 11 Eduqas 法律：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering legal terminology is the key to unlocking high marks in your Eduqas GCSE Law exams. This revision guide groups essential terms by topic area, providing clear English definitions alongside accurate Chinese translations and explanations. Use it for quick review and to build a strong foundation in legal language.
掌握法律术语是你在 Eduqas GCSE 法律考试中取得高分的关键。这份复习指南将核心术语按主题分组，提供清晰的英文定义和准确的中文解释。用它来快速回顾，打好法律语言的基础。
1. Criminal Law: Actus Reus, Mens Rea and Key Offences | 刑法：犯罪行为、犯罪意图与主要罪行
Actus reus – The physical element of a crime; the guilty act that must be voluntary and may include an omission where a duty exists. Causation, both factual and legal, is part of actus reus in result crimes.
犯罪行为 (actus reus)——犯罪的客观要件，必须是出于自愿的行为，在存在义务时也可能是不作为。在结果犯中，事实因果关系和法律因果关系都属于犯罪行为要件。
Mens rea – The mental element of a crime; the guilty mind. Common forms include intention (direct and oblique) and recklessness (conscious taking of an unjustifiable risk). Some offences require knowledge or negligence.
犯罪意图 (mens rea)——犯罪的主观要件，即主观罪过。常见形式包括故意（直接和间接）和轻率（明知有不当风险仍然行动）。某些罪行要求明知或疏忽。
Strict liability – Offences that do not require proof of mens rea for at least part of the actus reus. The defendant can be convicted even without fault, e.g., regulatory offences, selling alcohol to under-age person.
严格责任 (strict liability)——对于犯罪行为的至少一部分不要求证明犯罪意图的犯罪。即使被告没有过错也可能被定罪，例如管理类犯罪、向未成年人售酒。
Assault – An intentional or reckless act causing the victim to apprehend immediate unlawful violence. No physical contact is required.
威胁攻击 (assault)——故意或轻率地使受害人产生即将遭受非法暴力的恐惧。不需要发生实际身体接触。
Battery – The intentional or reckless application of unlawful force to another person. Even a hostile touch can amount to battery.
殴打 (battery)——故意或轻率地对他人施加非法武力。即使是带有敌意的触碰也可构成殴打。
ABH (Actual Bodily Harm) – An assault or battery that causes ‘some harm’ that is more than trivial, including psychological injury. Max penalty under s.47 OAPA 1861: 5 years.
实际身体伤害 (ABH)——造成“某些伤害”的威胁攻击或殴打，伤害程度高于微不足道，包括心理伤害。根据1861年《侵犯人身罪法》第47条，最高刑罚5年。
GBH (Grievous Bodily Harm) – Really serious harm; can be charged under s.20 (with intent or recklessness) or s.18 (with specific intent to cause GBH) OAPA 1861. Max penalty up to life imprisonment.
严重身体伤害 (GBH)——真正严重的伤害；可依据1861年《侵犯人身罪法》第20条（故意或轻率）或第18条（有造成严重伤害的特定意图）起诉。最高可判终身监禁。
2. Criminal Defences and Punishments | 刑事抗辩与惩罚
Self-defence – A complete defence where the defendant used reasonable force to protect themselves or another, or to prevent crime. The force must be proportionate to the threat as the defendant genuinely believed it to be.
自我防卫 (self-defence)——完全抗辩，指被告使用合理武力保护自己或他人，或防止犯罪。武力必须与被告真实相信的威胁相称。
Intoxication – Voluntary intoxication is not a defence to basic-intent crimes but may be evidence that the defendant lacked the required mens rea for specific-intent crimes. Involuntary intoxication may be a complete defence if it negates mens rea.
醉酒 (intoxication)——自愿醉酒不是基本意图犯罪（basic-intent crimes）的抗辩理由，但可作为证据表明被告缺乏特定意图犯罪（specific-intent crimes）的犯罪意图。非自愿醉酒如果否定了主观罪过，可能构成完全抗辩。
Duress – A defence where the defendant committed a crime because of a threat of death or serious injury to themselves or another. Not available for murder.
胁迫 (duress)——被告因自己或他人面临死亡或严重伤害的威胁而实施犯罪的抗辩。不适用于谋杀罪。
Insanity – A defence based on the M’Naghten rules; the defendant must show that due to a disease of the mind they did not know the nature and quality of the act, or that it was legally wrong.
精神错乱 (insanity)——基于姆纳顿规则（M’Naghten rules）的抗辩；被告需证明因精神疾病而不知道行为的性质和后果，或不知道行为在法律上是错误的。
Sentencing – The punishment imposed by a court after conviction. Aims include punishment, deterrence, rehabilitation, protection of the public and reparation. Sentences range from discharges and fines to community orders and custody.
量刑 (sentencing)——定罪后法院判处的刑罚。目的包括惩罚、威慑、改造、保护公众和修复。量刑种类从释放、罚金到社区令和监禁不等。
3. Tort Law: Negligence and Duty of Care | 侵权法：过失与注意义务
Tort – A civil wrong that causes harm or loss, giving the claimant the right to seek a remedy in court. The main tort studied is negligence.
侵权 (tort)——造成伤害或损失的民事过错行为，使原告有权向法院寻求救济。主要学习的侵权类型是过失（negligence）。
Negligence – A breach of a legal duty to take care that results in damage to the claimant. It has three elements: duty of care, breach of that duty, and damage caused by the breach (causation and remoteness).
过失 (negligence)——违反法律上的注意义务导致原告遭受损害。包括三个要素：注意义务、违反义务、以及由该违反造成的损害（因果关系和损害的遥远性）。
Duty of care – The obligation to avoid acts or omissions that could reasonably foreseeably cause harm to another. The ‘neighbour principle’ from Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) established that you must take reasonable care to avoid injuring your ‘neighbour’.
注意义务 (duty of care)——避免那些可以合理预见会对他人造成伤害的作为或不作为的义务。1932年 Donoghue v Stevenson 案的“邻人原则”确立了必须采取合理注意以避免伤害“邻人”的义务。
Breach of duty – The failure to meet the standard of care required by law, judged by the reasonable person test. Courts consider factors such as the likelihood of harm, seriousness of the harm, cost of precautions and the social usefulness of the defendant’s conduct.
违反义务 (breach of duty)——未能达到法律要求的注意标准，以理性人标准判断。法院会考虑伤害的可能性、伤害的严重性、预防措施的成本以及被告行为的社会效益等因素。
Causation – The claimant must prove both factual causation (the ‘but for’ test) and legal causation (that the damage was not too remote and the defendant’s act was the operative cause).
因果关系 (causation)——原告必须证明事实因果关系（“若非”判断法，but for test）和法律因果关系（损害并非过于遥远，且被告的行为是有效原因）。
Damages – The primary remedy in tort, a monetary award intended to restore the claimant to the position they would have been in had the tort not occurred. Can be special (quantifiable losses) or general (non-financial losses like pain and suffering).
损害赔偿金 (damages)——侵权法中的主要救济形式，一笔金钱赔偿，旨在使原告恢复到侵权未发生时的状态。分为特别损害赔偿金（可量化的损失）和一般损害赔偿金（非经济损失如痛苦与创伤）。
4. Contract Law: Formation and Breach | 合同法：成立与违约
Offer – A definite proposal communicated by the offeror that, if accepted, creates a binding contract. Must be distinguished from an invitation to treat, which is an invitation to negotiate.
要约 (offer)——要约人传达的明确提议，一经承诺即成立具有约束力的合同。必须与要约邀请（invitation to treat）区分，后者是邀请谈判。
Acceptance – The unqualified agreement to all terms of the offer, communicated to the offeror. Acceptance must follow any prescribed method and generally must be communicated; silence cannot amount to acceptance.
承诺 (acceptance)——对要约所有条款的无条件同意，并传达给要约人。承诺必须采用约定的方式且通常必须传达；沉默不构成承诺。
Consideration – Something of value exchanged between the parties; each side must give something to make the bargain binding. Consideration need not be adequate but must be sufficient and move from the promisee.
对价 (consideration)——双方交换的有价值之物；每一方都必须提供某物以使交易具有约束力。对价不需要是相当的对价，但必须是充分的对价，并由受允诺人提供。
Intention to create legal relations – The parties must intend their agreement to be legally binding. There is a presumption that commercial agreements are intended to be legal; social and domestic agreements are presumed not to be, unless evidence shows otherwise.
建立法律关系的意图 (intention to create legal relations)——当事人必须意图使协议具有法律约束力。推定商业协议具有法律效力；社会及家庭协议则推定无意建立法律关系，除非有相反证据。
Breach of contract – A failure to perform a contractual obligation. The innocent party may claim remedies such as damages, specific performance or injunction, depending on the nature of the breach.
违约 (breach of contract)——未能履行合同义务。守约方可根据违约性质主张损害赔偿金、特定履行令或禁制令等救济。
Damages in contract – Aim to place the claimant in the position they would have been in if the contract had been performed. Only losses that are reasonably foreseeable at the time of contracting can be recovered.
合同损害赔偿金 (damages)——旨在使原告处于合同若被履行应处的状态。只有订立合同时可以合理预见的损失才能获得赔偿。
5. Family Law: Marriage, Divorce and Children | 家庭法：婚姻、离婚与子女
Marriage – A legally recognised union between two people. In England and Wales, both opposite-sex and same-sex couples can marry. A valid marriage requires capacity, consent and certain formalities.
婚姻 (marriage)——法律承认的两个人之间的结合。在英格兰和威尔士，异性及同性伴侣均可结婚。有效婚姻要求具备结婚能力、双方同意并遵守特定手续。
Civil partnership – A legal relationship for same-sex couples (and opposite-sex couples since 2019) that provides similar rights and responsibilities as marriage through registration, not ceremony.
民事伴侣关系 (civil partnership)——为同性伴侣（自2019年起也适用于异性伴侣）设立的法律关系，通过登记而非仪式提供与婚姻类似的权利和义务。
Divorce – The legal ending of a marriage. Under the Divorce, Dissolution and Separation Act 2020, the only ground is the irretrievable breakdown of the marriage, proved by a statement, without the need to allege fault after a minimum period of 20 weeks.
离婚 (divorce)——婚姻的法律终止。根据《2020年离婚、解散与分居法》，唯一理由是婚姻已无可挽回地破裂，须通过声明证明，在至少20周后无需归咎任何一方过错。
Parental responsibility – The rights and duties that a parent has in relation to a child, including providing a home, protecting and maintaining the child. A mother automatically has it; a father acquires it by marriage or registration on birth certificate, or by court order.
父母责任 (parental responsibility)——父母对其子女享有的权利和承担的义务，包括提供住所、保护和抚养子女。母亲自动拥有；父亲通过婚姻、出生证明登记或法院命令获得。
Child arrangements order – An order under the Children Act 1989 that can determine with whom a child lives (residence) and how often with the other parent (contact). The child’s welfare is the paramount consideration.
子女安排令 (child arrangements order)——依据1989年《儿童法》作出的命令，可决定子女与谁生活（居住）以及与非同居父/母的接触（联系）频率。子女的福祉是首要考虑。
6. Human Rights Law: Key Rights and the HRA 1998 | 人权法：主要权利与1998年《人权法》
Human Rights Act 1998 – An Act that incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law. It requires public authorities to act compatibly with Convention rights and allows individuals to bring proceedings. Courts can make a declaration of incompatibility if statutes conflict.
1998年《人权法》 (Human Rights Act 1998)——将《欧洲人权公约》纳入英国法律的一部法律。要求公共机构以符合公约权利的方式行事，并允许个人提起诉讼。若法律与公约冲突，法院可发布不一致性声明。
Article 2 – Right to life – Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law. The state must take appropriate steps to safeguard life and investigate deaths involving state agents.
第2条——生命权——每个人的生命权应受法律保护。国家必须采取适当措施保障生命并对涉及国家人员的死亡进行调查。
Article 5 – Right to liberty and security – Protects individuals from arbitrary arrest or detention. Deprivation of liberty must be lawful and carried out according to a procedure prescribed by law.
第5条——自由与安全权——保护个人免受任意逮捕或拘留。剥夺自由必须合法，并依法律规定程序进行。
Article 8 – Right to respect for private and family life – Guarantees protection against unjustified interference with private life, family, home and correspondence. Interference must be in accordance with law and necessary in a democratic society.
第8条——尊重私人与家庭生活的权利——保障私人生活、家庭、住宅及通信免受不当干涉。干涉必须依法进行且在民主社会中必须具有必要性。
Article 10 – Freedom of expression – Protects the right to hold opinions and to receive and impart information without governmental interference, subject to lawful restrictions for national security, public safety or the protection of rights of others.
第10条——表达自由——保护持有观点和不受政府干预接收和传播信息的权利，但可因国家安全、公共安全或保护他人权利而受到合法限制。
Judicial review – A procedure allowing courts to review the legality of decisions and actions of public bodies. Grounds include illegality, irrationality (Wednesbury unreasonableness), procedural impropriety and, in human rights cases, proportionality.
司法审查 (judicial review)——法院审查公共机构决定和行为合法性的程序。依据包括非法性、不合理性（温斯伯里不合理性）、程序不当以及在人权案件中的比例性原则。
7. Law Making: Statute Law and Delegated Legislation | 法律制定：成文法与授权立法
Statute law – Law made by Parliament through Acts. A Bill must be passed by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords and receive Royal Assent before becoming an Act of Parliament.
成文法 (statute law)——议会通过法案制定的法律。法案必须经下议院和上议院通过，并获得御准（Royal Assent）后方成为议会法律。
Bill – A proposed law before it passes all parliamentary stages. Types include Public Bills (government policy), Private Members’ Bills and Private Bills (affecting specific individuals or organisations).
法案 (bill)——未完成所有议会阶段之前的法律草案。类型包括公共法案（政府政策）、议员个人法案和私人法案（针对特定个人或组织）。
Green Paper – A consultation document issued by the government setting out proposals for a new law and inviting comments from interested parties.
绿皮书 (Green Paper)——政府发布的咨询文件，提出新法律的建议并邀请有关各方发表意见。
White Paper – A more definitive document following consultation, outlining firm government proposals for legislation. It often forms the basis of a Bill.
白皮书 (White Paper)——在征求意见后发布的更明确的文件，列出政府关于立法的确定建议，通常构成法案的基础。
Royal Assent – The formal approval by the monarch for a Bill to become an Act of Parliament. It is now a formality and has not been refused since 1708.
御准 (Royal Assent)——君主对法案成为议会法律的正式批准。如今这是例行程序，自1708年以来从未被拒绝。
Delegated legislation – Law made by bodies other than Parliament under authority granted by an enabling Act. Includes Orders in Council, Statutory Instruments and by-laws. It allows detailed rules without using full parliamentary time.
授权立法 (delegated legislation)——根据授权法由非议会机构制定的法律。包括枢密院令（Orders in Council）、法定文件（Statutory Instruments）和地方细则（by-laws）。它可以在不占用议会全部时间的情况下制定详细规则。
8. Judicial Precedent and the Court System | 司法先例与法院体系
Judicial precedent – A system where past decisions of judges create law for future judges to follow. It is based on stare decisis, meaning ‘to stand by things decided’.
司法先例 (judicial precedent)——法官过去的判决为未来法官创立需遵循的法律的制度。它基于“遵循先例”原则（stare decisis），意为“维护已决定的事物”。
Ratio decidendi – The legal reason for the decision; the binding part of a precedent that must be followed by courts lower in the hierarchy.
判决理由 (ratio decidendi)——判决的法律依据；先例中具有约束力的部分，下级法院必须遵循。
Obiter dicta – ‘Things said by the way’; remarks in a judgment that are not essential to the decision. They are persuasive but not binding, and can be influential in later cases.
附带意见 (obiter dicta)——“附带之语”；判决中不构成核心决定要旨的言论。它们具有说服力但不具约束力，但可能对以后的案件产生影响。
Binding precedent – A precedent from a higher court that a lower court must follow if the material facts are similar. The Supreme Court binds all lower courts, and the Court of Appeal generally binds the High Court and Crown Court.
有约束力的先例 (binding precedent)——来自上级法院且案情实质相似的先例，下级法院必须遵循。最高法院对所有下级法院有约束力，上诉法院通常对高等法院和刑事法院有约束力。
Persuasive precedent – A precedent that is not binding but may be followed because of its reasoning, such as obiter dicta from a higher court, decisions of lower courts, or rulings from other common law jurisdictions.
有说服力的先例 (persuasive precedent)——不具有约束力但因推理而被采纳的先例，例如上级法院的附带意见、下级法院的判决或其他普通法法域的裁决。
Court hierarchy (criminal) – Supreme Court → Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) → Crown Court → Magistrates’ Court. For civil: Supreme Court → Court of Appeal (Civil Division) → High Court (Divisions) → County Court.
法院层级（刑事）：最高法院 → 上诉法院（刑事庭） → 刑事法院 → 治安法院。民事层级：最高法院 → 上诉法院（民事庭） → 高等法院（各分庭） → 郡法院。
9. Legal Personnel and the Jury | 法律职业人员与陪审团
Barrister – A lawyer who specialises in advocacy and providing specialist legal advice. Barristers may represent clients in any court and have rights of audience in all courts. They are often self-employed and work in chambers.
出庭律师 (barrister)——专门从事庭审辩护和提供专业法律意见的律师。出庭律师可在任何法院出庭，并在所有法院享有出庭发言权。他们通常自雇并在律师行工作。
Solicitor – A lawyer who provides legal advice, prepares documents and may represent clients in lower courts. Solicitors are often the first point of contact for clients and may instruct barristers for complex court cases.
事务律师 (solicitor)——提供法律咨询、准备文件并可在下级法院代理客户的律师。事务律师通常是客户的首要联系人，并在复杂案件中委托出庭律师。
Judge – A legal professional who presides over court proceedings, ensures a fair trial, determines legal issues and passes sentence in criminal cases or gives judgment in civil cases. Senior judges include Justices of the Supreme Court, Lords Justices of Appeal and High Court Judges.
法官 (judge)——主持法庭程序、确保公正审判、裁定法律问题并在刑事案件中量刑或在民事案件中作出判决的法律专业人士。高级法官包括最高法院法官、上诉法院法官和高等法院法官。
Magistrate – An unpaid lay person (or a District Judge) who hears cases in the Magistrates’ Court. Lay magistrates sit as a bench of three, assisted by a legal adviser. They deal with summary offences, some either-way offences and preliminary matters.
治安法官 (magistrate)——在治安法院审理案件的无薪非法律专业人士（或地区法官）。非专业治安法官以三人合议庭形式开庭，由法律顾问协助。他们处理简易罪行、部分可公诉可简易罪行以及预审事项。
Jury – A group of 12 randomly selected members of the public (aged 18–75) who decide the facts in Crown Court trials. The jury must reach a verdict on the basis of evidence and directions of law from the judge. Jury service is a civic duty.
陪审团 (jury)——由随机选出的12名公众（18-75岁）组成的团体，在刑事法院审判中裁定事实。陪审团必须依据证据和法官的法律指引作出裁决。履行陪审团服务是公民义务。
10. Legal Processes: Civil vs Criminal Trials | 法律程序：民事与刑事审判之比较
Claimant – The party who initiates a civil lawsuit, bringing a claim against the defendant (in Scotland: pursuer).
原告 (claimant)——提起民事诉讼的一方，控告被告（在苏格兰为 pursuer）。
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