📚 SQA German Year 12 Formula & Rule Quick-Reference Handbook | SQA 德语 Year 12 公式定理速查手册
This handbook distils the core grammatical ‘formulas’ and structural rules required for the SQA Year 12 German course. It is designed as a rapid revision tool, pairing each principle with clear English and Chinese explanations. You can use it to check verb endings, adjective declensions, case usage, and sentence patterns at a glance. The goal is to build a reliable mental framework, so that you can handle reading, writing, listening, and speaking with greater confidence.
本手册提炼了 SQA Year 12 德语课程的核心语法“公式”与结构规则，旨在作为快速复习工具，为每条原理配以清晰的英文和中文解释。你可以随时查阅动词词尾、形容词变格、格的使用以及句式结构。目标是建立一套可靠的心理框架，从而更自信地应对阅读、写作、听力和口语任务。
1. Noun Genders and Definite/Indefinite Articles | 名词性别与定冠词/不定冠词
Every German noun belongs to one of three genders: masculine (der), feminine (die), or neuter (das). The definite article must agree with the gender of the noun. The indefinite article ‘ein’ (a/an) also follows the same gender distinction in the nominative case: ein for masculine and neuter, eine for feminine. This rule is fundamental for all subsequent case and adjective work.
每个德语名词都属于三种性别之一：阳性 (der)、阴性 (die) 或中性 (das)。定冠词必须与名词性别一致。不定冠词 “ein” 在主格中也遵循同样的性别区分：阳性和中性用 ein，阴性用 eine。此规则是所有后续变格和形容词变化的基础。
| Gender | Definite Article | Indefinite Article |
|---|---|---|
| Masculine | der | ein |
| Feminine | die | eine |
| Neuter | das | ein |
Remember: plural nouns always take the definite article ‘die’ in the nominative, regardless of the singular gender, and the plural indefinite article does not exist (use ‘keine’ for negation).
记住：复数名词在主格中总是用定冠词 “die”，不论其单数性别；复数没有不定冠词（表示否定时用 “keine”）。
2. The Four Cases: Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Genitive | 四大格：主格、宾格、与格、属格
The German case system marks the function of a noun in a sentence. Nominative is used for the subject; accusative for the direct object; dative for the indirect object; genitive for possession. The forms of articles, pronouns, and adjectives change according to case. Mastery of these shifts is simply a matter of learning a set of ‘formulas’.
德语的格系统标记名词在句子中的功能。主格用于主语；宾格用于直接宾语；与格用于间接宾语；属格表示所属。冠词、代词和形容词的形式均随格而变化。掌握这些变化无非是学习一套“公式”。
The definite article ‘formula’ across cases:
定冠词跨格“公式”：
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | der | die | das | die |
| Accusative | den | die | das | die |
| Dative | dem | der | dem | den (+n on noun) |
| Genitive | des (+s/es) | der | des (+s/es) | der |
Note the consistent accusative change only for masculine (der → den), and the dative modification for masculine/neuter (dem) and plural (den + noun ending).
注意宾格仅阳性发生变化 (der → den)；与格中阳性/中性变为 dem，复数变为 den 且名词本身常需加词尾 -n。
3. Adjective Endings: The Three Tables | 形容词词尾：三种表格
Adjective endings depend on the type of preceding word (definite article, indefinite article, or no article) and on case, gender, and number. The strong endings (without a preceding article that clearly shows the case) and weak endings (with a definite article) follow patterns that can be memorised as grids. The mixed endings occur after ‘ein’, ‘kein’, and possessive adjectives.
形容词词尾取决于前面单词的类型（定冠词、不定冠词或无冠词）以及格、性和数。强变化词尾（前面没有明确表明格的冠词）和弱变化词尾（前面有定冠词）遵循可记忆的表格模式。混合变化出现在 “ein”, “kein” 和物主形容词之后。
Weak ending rule: After der/die/das, add -e or -en.
弱变化规则：在 der/die/das 后，词尾基本为 -e 或 -en。
For strong endings (no article), the adjective takes over the signal from the missing definite article, so masculine nominative -er, neuter nominative/accusative -es, etc. These are classic ‘formulas’ that can be practised until they become automatic.
强变化（无冠词）时，形容词承担了缺失定冠词的信号功能，因此阳性主格为 -er，中性主格/宾格为 -es 等等。这些是经典的“公式”，通过练习可以达到自动化。
4. Present Tense Verb Conjugation: The ‘e-st-t-en-t-en’ Pattern | 现在时动词变位：“e-st-t-en-t-en” 模式
Regular (weak) verbs in the present tense follow a predictable stem + ending formula. Remove the -en from the infinitive to find the stem, then add the personal endings. This is the first major conjugation theorem you learn.
规则（弱变化）动词的现在时遵循可预测的词干 + 词尾公式。去掉不定式的 -en 得到词干，然后加上人称词尾。这是你学到的第一个重要变位定理。
| Pronoun | Ending | Example: spielen |
|---|---|---|
| ich | -e | spiele |
| du | -st | spielst |
| er/sie/es | -t | spielt |
| wir | -en | spielen |
| ihr | -t | spielt |
| sie/Sie | -en | spielen |
Irregular (strong) verbs may change the stem vowel in the second-person singular (du) and third-person singular (e.g., e → i, a → ä, e → ie). For example: sehen → du siehst, er sieht. These vowel shifts must be learned individually but follow established patterns.
不规则（强变化）动词可能在第二人称单数 (du) 和第三人称单数中改变词干元音（例如 e → i, a → ä, e → ie）。例如 sehen → du siehst, er sieht。这些元音变化虽需单独记忆，但遵循固定模式。
5. Modal Verbs and the ‘Verb Bracket’ | 情态动词与“动词括号”
Modal verbs (können, müssen, dürfen, sollen, wollen, mögen) modify the meaning of a main verb and follow their own conjugation formulas. The modal is conjugated in second position, while the main verb is pushed to the end of the clause in its infinitive form. This sentence structure is often called the ‘Satzklammer’ or verb bracket.
情态动词 (können, müssen, dürfen, sollen, wollen, mögen) 修饰主动词的含义，并遵循自身的变位公式。情态动词在句中第二位变位，而主动词以不定式形式被推至句末。这种句子结构常被称为“动词括号”。
Formula: Subject + Modal (conjugated) + … + Infinitive (at end).
公式：主语 + 情态动词（变位） + … + 不定式（句末）。
Example: Ich muss meine Hausaufgaben machen. (I must do my homework.) Note that the modal verb ‘muss’ takes the second position, and ‘machen’ is at the end. This is a crucial word-order rule that applies also to future tense and perfect tense with auxiliaries.
示例：Ich muss meine Hausaufgaben machen. 注意情态动词 muss 在第二位，machen 在句末。这是关键的语序规则，也适用于带助动词的将来时和完成时。
6. Perfect Tense Formation: ‘haben’ or ‘sein’ + Past Participle | 完成时构成：‘haben’ 或 ‘sein’ + 过去分词
The perfect tense is the standard spoken past. It is formed with an auxiliary verb (haben or sein) in second position and the past participle at the end. The choice of auxiliary is governed by a clear formula: most verbs use haben; verbs expressing motion or a change of state, plus a few others (sein, bleiben, werden), use sein.
完成时是标准的口语过去时。它由在第二位的助动词 (haben 或 sein) 和句末的过去分词构成。助动词的选择遵循明确公式：多数动词用 haben；表示移动或状态变化的动词，以及几个特定的动词 (sein, bleiben, werden) 用 sein。
The regular past participle formula: ge + verb stem + t (e.g., spielen → gespielt). For strong verbs: ge + stem (with vowel change) + en (e.g., trinken → getrunken). Separable verbs insert -ge- between the prefix and the stem: einkaufen → eingekauft.
规则过去分词公式：ge + 词干 + t（如 spielen → gespielt）。强变化动词：ge + 词干（常有元音变化） + en（如 trinken → getrunken）。可分动词将 -ge- 插入前缀和词干之间：einkaufen → eingekauft。
7. Separable Verbs: Prefix Motion | 可分动词：前缀移动
Separable-prefix verbs consist of a stressed prefix (e.g., an-, auf-, aus-, ein-, mit-, zu-) and a base verb. In main clauses, the prefix detaches and moves to the end of the clause, while the conjugated stem stays in second position. This is another core ‘bracket’ theorem.
可分前缀动词由一个重读前缀（如 an-, auf-, aus-, ein-, mit-, zu-）和一个基础动词组成。在主句中，前缀脱离并移至句末，变位词干保持在第二位。这是另一个核心的“括号”定理。
Formula: Subject + Finite verb (stem only) + … + Separated prefix.
公式：主语 + 限定动词（仅词干） + … + 分离前缀。
Example: Ich stehe um 7 Uhr auf. (I get up at 7 o’clock.) Here the prefix ‘auf’ has travelled to the end. In subordinate clauses, the verb reunites with its prefix at the end: … weil ich um 7 Uhr aufstehe.
示例：Ich stehe um 7 Uhr auf. 此处前缀 auf 移至句末。在从句中，动词与前缀重新合并在句末：… weil ich um 7 Uhr aufstehe.
8. Two-Way Prepositions: Accusative vs Dative | 双格介词：宾格与与格
The nine two-way prepositions (an, auf, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen) can take either accusative or dative. The governing formula is motion vs location: accusative expresses movement towards a destination (wohin?); dative expresses a static location (wo?). This is sometimes summarised as ‘A for action/accusative, D for dormant/dative’.
九个双格介词 (an, auf, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen) 可支配宾格或与格。支配规则公式是动态与静态：宾格表示朝向目的地的移动 (wohin?)；与格表示静止的位置 (wo?)。有时总结为 “A 代表动作 (action)/宾格 (accusative)，D 代表静止 (dormant)/与格 (dative)”。
Example: Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch. (accusative – motion) vs. Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. (dative – location). This distinction must be applied automatically when constructing sentences with these prepositions.
示例：Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch.（宾格，动作）对比 Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch.（与格，位置）。在使用这些介词造句时，必须能够自动应用这一区别。
9. Subordinating Conjunctions and Verb-Final Rule | 从属连词与动词置末规则
Subordinating conjunctions (weil, dass, wenn, als, obwohl, damit, etc.) introduce dependent clauses and force the conjugated verb to move to the very end of the clause. This is a fundamental word-order theorem that overrides the normal verb-second rule.
从属连词 (weil, dass, wenn, als, obwohl, damit 等) 引导从句，并强制将变位动词移至从句的最末尾。这是一条根本性的语序定理，它覆盖了正常的动词二位规则。
Formula: Conjunction + Subject + … + Conjugated verb (end).
公式：连词 + 主语 + … + 变位动词（末尾）。
Example: Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich krank bin. (I’m staying at home because I am sick.) The verb ‘bin’ appears at the end of the ‘weil’ clause. This rule applies regardless of the length of the clause.
示例：Ich bleibe zu Hause, weil ich krank bin. 动词 bin 出现在 weil 从句的末尾。无论从句有多长，该规则都适用。
10. Relative Pronouns and Relative Clauses | 关系代词与从句
Relative pronouns (der, die, das; welcher, welche, welches) introduce a relative clause that provides additional information about a noun. The relative pronoun must match the antecedent in gender and number, but its case is determined by its function within the relative clause. The verb in the relative clause is pushed to the end, following the same pattern as subordinate clauses.
关系代词 (der, die, das; welcher, welche, welches) 引导关系从句，为名词提供附加信息。关系代词必须在性和数上与先行词一致，但其格由其在关系从句中的功能决定。关系从句中的动词置于末尾，遵循与从句相同的模式。
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | der | die | das | die |
| Accusative | den | die | das | die |
| Dative | dem | der | dem | denen |
| Genitive | dessen | deren | dessen | deren |
Example: Das ist der Mann, den ich gestern gesehen habe. (That’s the man whom I saw yesterday.) The relative pronoun ‘den’ is accusative masculine because it is the direct object of ‘gesehen habe’.
示例：Das ist der Mann, den ich gestern gesehen habe. 关系代词 den 是阳性宾格，因为它是 gesehen habe 的直接宾语。
11. The Passive Voice: werden + Past Participle | 被动语态：werden + 过去分词
The passive voice shifts focus from the agent to the action. In German, the passive is formed using the auxiliary ‘werden’ (conjugated) and the past participle of the main verb at the end. The agent can be introduced with ‘von’ (for persons) or ‘durch’ (for means/instruments). The formula is straightforward but requires accurate past participles.
被动语态将焦点从施动者转移到动作本身。德语中，被动语态由助动词 werden（变位）和主动词的过去分词（置于句末）构成。施动者可用 von（针对人）或 durch（针对手段/工具）引出。公式直截了当但需要准确的过去分词。
Present passive: Subject + werden (present) + … + past participle.
现在被动：主语 + werden（现在时变位） + … + 过去分词。
Example: Das Haus wird gebaut. (The house is being built.) In the perfect passive, the construction becomes ‘ist + past participle + worden’ (note the short form ‘worden’, not ‘geworden’). Das Haus ist gebaut worden.
示例：Das Haus wird gebaut. 在完成被动中，结构变为 ist + 过去分词 + worden（注意 worden 的短形式，而非 geworden）：Das Haus ist gebaut worden.
12. The Subjunctive II (Konjunktiv II): Polite Requests and Unreal Conditions | 虚拟式 II：礼貌请求与非现实条件
The Subjunctive II (Konjunktiv II) is used for hypothetical situations, wishes, and polite requests. Its formula commonly includes the auxiliary ‘würde’ + infinitive for most verbs, but modal verbs and a handful of strong verbs have their own forms (hätte, wäre, könnte, müsste, etc.). This construction is essential for expressing unreal conditional clauses.
虚拟式 II (Konjunktiv II) 用于假设情况、愿望和礼貌请求。其公式通常为 würden + 不定式（适用于大多数动词），但情态动词和少数强变化动词有自己的形式 (hätte, wäre, könnte, müsste 等)。此结构对于表达非现实条件句至关重要。
Formula: Wenn + subject + Konjunktiv II form + …, would-clause (with würde/wäre/hätte).
公式：Wenn + 主语 + 虚拟 II 形式 + …, 主句（带 würde/wäre/hätte）。
Example: Wenn ich reich wäre, würde ich um die Welt reisen. (If I were rich, I would travel around the world.) Alternative without ‘würde’ uses the verb’s own form: Wenn ich Zeit hätte, ginge ich ins Kino. (If I had time, I would go to the cinema.)
示例：Wenn ich reich wäre, würde ich um die Welt reisen. 绝用 würden 的替代方式是用动词自身的形式：Wenn ich Zeit hätte, ginge ich ins Kino.
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