📚 SQA Higher Computing Science: Rapid Vocabulary & Terminology Guide | SQA高等计算机科学：词汇术语速记指南
Understanding key terminology is essential for success in SQA Higher Computing Science. This guide provides rapid definitions of core vocabulary across all major topics, helping you revise efficiently and accurately. Each term is presented in English followed by its Chinese equivalent, reinforcing bilingual comprehension.
掌握关键术语是SQA高等计算机科学取得成功的基础。本指南提供了所有核心主题领域的重要词汇的速记定义，帮助您高效准确地复习。每个术语先用英文解释，然后给出中文对应，强化双语理解。
1. Data Representation | 数据表示
Bit and Byte: A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data, holding only 0 or 1. A byte consists of 8 bits and is typically the smallest addressable unit of memory, capable of storing one character.
位与字节：位（比特）是最小的数据单位，仅存储0或1。一个字节由8个位组成，通常是内存中可寻址的最小单元，能够存储一个字符。
Binary: A base‑2 number system using only the digits 0 and 1. All modern computers represent data and instructions internally in binary form because digital circuits have two stable states.
二进制：一种以2为基数的数字系统，仅使用0和1。所有现代计算机在内部都用二进制表示数据和指令，因为数字电路具有两种稳定状态。
Hexadecimal: A base‑16 number system using digits 0–9 and letters A–F. It provides a more compact and human‑friendly representation of binary values, often used for memory addresses and colour codes.
十六进制：一种以16为基数的数字系统，使用0–9和A–F。它为二进制数值提供了更紧凑、更易读的表示形式，常用于内存地址和颜色代码。
Two’s Complement: A method for representing signed integers in binary. The most significant bit indicates the sign (0 for positive, 1 for negative), and arithmetic operations can be performed directly without adjusting for the sign.
二进制补码：一种用二进制表示有符号整数的方法。最高位表示符号（0为正，1为负），并且可以直接进行算术运算，无需调整符号。
Floating‑Point Representation: A way to store real numbers using a mantissa and an exponent, analogous to scientific notation. It allows a wide range of values but can introduce rounding errors due to limited precision.
浮点数表示：一种使用尾数和指数存储实数的方法，类似于科学记数法。它能表示宽范围的数值，但因精度有限可能引入舍入误差。
ASCII and Unicode: ASCII is a 7‑bit character encoding standard supporting 128 characters, primarily English. Unicode extends this to cover virtually all writing systems, with UTF‑8 being a common variable‑width encoding backward‑compatible with ASCII.
ASCII与Unicode：ASCII是一种7位字符编码标准，支持128个字符，主要用于英语。Unicode则将其扩展到几乎所有书写系统，UTF‑8是常见的可变长度编码，并与ASCII向下兼容。
2. Computer Structure | 计算机结构
Processor (CPU): The central processing unit carries out instructions of a computer program. It contains the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) for calculations and the control unit (CU) to direct data flow and instruction execution.
处理器（CPU）：中央处理器执行计算机程序的指令。它包含用于计算的算术逻辑单元（ALU）和用于指导数据流和指令执行的控制单元（CU）。
Registers: Small, high‑speed storage locations inside the CPU. Key registers include the Program Counter (PC) holding the next instruction address, the Memory Address Register (MAR), Memory Data Register (MDR), and the Accumulator.
寄存器：CPU内部的小型高速存储位置。关键寄存器包括存放下一指令地址的程序计数器（PC）、内存地址寄存器（MAR）、内存数据寄存器（MDR）和累加器。
Cache Memory: A very fast memory component located close to the CPU that stores frequently accessed data and instructions, reducing the average time to access main memory and improving overall performance.
高速缓存：位于CPU附近的非常快速的存储部件，存放频繁访问的数据和指令，减少访问主存的平均时间，提高整体性能。
RAM and ROM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory used to hold programs and data currently in use. Read‑Only Memory (ROM) is non‑volatile and stores firmware or essential boot instructions that do not change.
RAM与ROM：随机存取存储器（RAM）是易失性存储器，用于存放当前使用的程序和数据。只读存储器（ROM）是非易失性存储器，存放不会更改的固件或基本启动指令。
System Bus: A set of parallel wires connecting the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It is divided into the address bus (carries memory addresses), data bus (transfers data), and control bus (sends timing and control signals).
系统总线：一组连接CPU、内存和I/O设备的并行线路。分为地址总线（传送内存地址）、数据总线（传输数据）和控制总线（发送定时和控制信号）。
Fetch‑Execute Cycle: The fundamental process by which the CPU operates. In the fetch stage, an instruction is fetched from memory; in the execute stage, it is decoded and carried out. This cycle repeats billions of times per second.
取指—执行周期：CPU运作的基本过程。在取指阶段，从内存取出指令；在执行阶段，指令被译码并执行。该周期每秒重复数十亿次。
3. Software Development Process | 软件开发过程
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): A structured process comprising stages such as analysis, design, implementation, testing, documentation, and evaluation. It ensures systematic and maintainable software development.
软件开发生命周期（SDLC）：一个结构化过程，包括分析、设计、实现、测试、文档和评估等阶段。它确保软件开发具有系统性和可维护性。
Waterfall Model: A linear sequential development model where each phase must be completed before the next begins. It is simple to manage but inflexible when requirements change late in the project.
瀑布模型：一种线性顺序开发模型，每个阶段必须完成后才能开始下一阶段。它易于管理，但如果在项目后期需求变化则缺乏灵活性。
Agile Development: An iterative approach that delivers software in small increments and actively involves the customer. It emphasises adaptability, collaboration, and frequent feedback, often using frameworks like Scrum.
敏捷开发：一种迭代方法，以小增量交付软件并积极让客户参与。它强调适应性、协作和频繁反馈，常使用Scrum等框架。
Pseudocode: A human‑readable, informal language used to plan algorithms without strict syntax rules. It bridges the gap between logical thinking and coding by describing steps using plain English or structured notation.
伪代码：一种人类可读的非正式语言，用于规划算法，无严格的语法规则。它通过使用通俗英语或结构化标记来描述步骤，弥合了逻辑思维与编码间的鸿沟。
Test Plan: A document outlining the testing strategy, including test cases with inputs, expected outputs, and actual results. Normal, boundary, and exceptional data are tested to ensure robustness.
测试计划：一份概述测试策略的文档，包括带有输入、预期输出和实际结果的测试用例。测试正常、边界和异常数据以确保软件的健壮性。
Error Types: Syntax errors occur when code violates language grammar; logic errors cause unintended behaviour without crashing; runtime errors happen during execution (e.g., division by zero).
错误类型：语法错误在代码违反语言语法时出现；逻辑错误导致非预期的行为但不会崩溃；运行时错误在执行时发生（如除以零）。
4. Programming Constructs | 编程结构
Sequence: The simplest programming construct where instructions are executed one after another in the order they are written. Every program relies on sequence as its default flow of control.
顺序结构：最简单的编程结构，指令按书写顺序逐条执行。每个程序都依赖顺序结构作为其默认的控制流程。
Selection: A construct that allows a program to choose between different paths based on a condition. It includes IF‑THEN‑ELSE and CASE (switch) statements, enabling decision‑making.
选择结构：一种允许程序根据条件在不同路径间进行选择的结构。它包括IF‑THEN‑ELSE和CASE（switch）语句，实现了决策功能。
Iteration: Repeated execution of a block of code. Definite iteration uses FOR loops (known number of repetitions), while indefinite iteration uses WHILE or REPEAT‑UNTIL loops (condition‑based).
迭代结构：重复执行一段代码。确定迭代使用FOR循环（已知重复次数），而不确定迭代使用WHILE或REPEAT‑UNTIL循环（基于条件）。
Array: A data structure that stores a fixed‑size sequential collection of elements of the same type. Elements are accessed by an index, allowing efficient storage and retrieval of multiple values.
数组：一种存储固定大小、相同类型元素顺序集合的数据结构。元素通过索引访问，能够高效存储和检索多个值。
Record: A composite data type that groups related fields of potentially different types under a single name. Records model real‑world entities like a student (name, age, ID).
记录：一种复合数据类型，将可能不同类型但相关的字段组合在一个名称下。记录可以模拟真实世界的实体，如学生（姓名、年龄、学号）。
Parameter Passing: The mechanism to supply values to subprograms. Pass by value sends a copy; changes inside the subprogram do not affect the original. Pass by reference sends the memory address, allowing modification of the original variable.
参数传递：为子程序提供值的机制。按值传递发送副本，子程序内部的更改不影响原变量。按引用传递发送内存地址，允许修改原变量。
5. Database Systems | 数据库系统
Field, Record, Table: A field is a single data item (e.g., name); a record is a collection of related fields (e.g., an employee’s details); a table is a set of records with the same structure.
字段、记录、表：字段是单个数据项（如姓名）；记录是相关字段的集合（如员工的详细信息）；表是结构相同的记录集合。
Primary Key: A field that uniquely identifies each record in a table. It must contain unique, non‑null values and is used to enforce entity integrity and enable quick lookups.
主键：一个唯一标识表中每条记录的字段。它必须包含唯一、非空的值，用于强制实体完整性并实现快速查找。
Foreign Key: A field in one table that refers to the primary key in another table. It establishes a link between tables and enforces referential integrity, ensuring relationships remain consistent.
外键：一个表中的字段，引用了另一个表的主键。它在表之间建立连接，并强制执行参照完整性，确保关系保持一致。
SQL: Structured Query Language is the standard language for managing relational databases. Common commands include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, used for retrieving and manipulating data.
SQL：结构化查询语言是管理关系数据库的标准语言。常用命令包括SELECT、INSERT、UPDATE和DELETE，用于检索和操作数据。
Normalisation: A process of organising data to reduce redundancy and avoid anomalies. It involves breaking tables into smaller, related tables and applying normal forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF) to eliminate partial and transitive dependencies.
规范化：一种组织数据以减少冗余和避免异常的过程。它将表分解为更小的相关表，并应用范式（1NF、2NF、3NF）消除部分依赖和传递依赖。
Referential Integrity: A database constraint that ensures relationships between tables remain valid. For every foreign key value, there must be a matching primary key value in the referenced table.
参照完整性：一种数据库约束，确保表之间的关系保持有效。对于每一个外键值，被引用表中必须存在匹配的主键值。
6. Web Design and Development | 网页设计与开发
HTML: HyperText Markup Language provides the structure and content of a web page. Elements are defined by tags such as <h1>, <p>, and <img>, which browsers render into the visible page.
HTML：超文本标记语言提供网页的结构和内容。元素由标签定义，如 <h1>、<p>、<img>，浏览器将它们渲染为可视页面。
CSS: Cascading Style Sheets control the presentation and layout of HTML documents. They separate style (colours, fonts, positioning) from content, making site‑wide changes easier to manage.
CSS：层叠样式表控制HTML文档的呈现和布局。它们将样式（颜色、字体、定位）与内容分离，使站点的全局变化更易管理。
JavaScript: A client‑side scripting language that adds interactivity to web pages. It can validate forms, modify HTML content dynamically, and respond to user events without requiring a page reload.
JavaScript：一种客户端脚本语言，为网页添加交互性。它可以验证表单、动态修改HTML内容，并对用户事件做出响应，无需重新加载页面。
Hyperlink: A reference in a web document that links to another resource, which may be a page, image, or section. Hyperlinks create the connective structure of the web and are usually activated by clicking on text or graphics.
超链接：网页文档中指向另一个资源（页面、图像或区段）的引用。超链接构建了网络的连接结构，通常通过点击文本或图形来激活。
Responsive Design: An approach that ensures web pages render well on a variety of devices and window sizes. It uses flexible grids, fluid images, and CSS media queries to adapt the layout automatically.
响应式设计：一种确保网页在多种设备和窗口尺寸上呈现良好的方法。它使用弹性网格、流体图像和CSS媒体查询来自动调整布局。
Wireframe: A low‑fidelity visual guide representing the skeletal framework of a website. It shows the placement of elements like navigation, content areas, and buttons without detailed styling.
线框图：一种低保真度的视觉指南，代表网站的骨架框架。它展示导航、内容区域和按钮等元素的放置位置，不含细致的样式设计。
7. Networking and Communications | 网络与通信
LAN and WAN: A Local Area Network connects computers in a small geographic area, such as an office. A Wide Area Network spans large distances, using leased lines or the internet to link LANs across cities or countries.
局域网与广域网：局域网连接小地理范围内的计算机，如办公室。广域网跨越远距离，使用专线或互联网连接城市或国家之间的局域网。
Network Topology: The physical or logical arrangement of nodes in a network. Common topologies include star (all nodes connect to a central switch), bus (a single backbone cable), and mesh (multiple interconnections for redundancy).
网络拓扑：网络中节点的物理或逻辑布局。常见拓扑有星型（所有节点连接到中央交换机）、总线型（单根主干电缆）和网状（多重互联以冗余）。
TCP/IP Protocol Stack: A suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures reliable data delivery, while IP (Internet Protocol) handles addressing and routing packets.
TCP/IP协议栈：一套用于互联网上互连网络设备的通信协议。TCP（传输控制协议）确保可靠的数据传输，而IP（互联网协议）处理寻址和路由数据包。
Client‑Server vs Peer‑to‑Peer: In client‑server, a central server provides resources to multiple clients. In peer‑to‑peer (P2P), each node acts as both client and server, sharing resources directly without a central authority.
客户端—服务器与对等网络：在客户端—服务器网络中，中央服务器向多个客户端提供资源。在对等网络 (P2P) 中，每个节点既是客户端又是服务器，无需中央权威直接共享资源。
IP Address and DNS: An IP address uniquely identifies a device on a network. The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human‑friendly domain names (like example.com) into IP addresses, acting like a phonebook for the internet.
IP地址与DNS：IP地址唯一地标识网络中的设备。域名系统 (DNS) 将人类易记的域名（如example.com）翻译为IP地址，起到互联网电话簿的作用。
Packet Switching: A method of transmitting data where messages are broken into small packets, each sent independently and possibly via different routes. Packets are reassembled at the destination, improving efficiency and fault tolerance.
分组交换：一种数据传输方法，将消息分解为小数据包，每个包独立发送，可能经过不同路径。数据包在目的地重新组装，提高效率和容错能力。
8. Computer Security | 计算机安全
Firewall: A security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks.
防火墙：一种根据预定规则监控和控制进出网络流量的安全系统。它在受信任的内部网络与不可信的外部网络之间充当屏障。
Encryption: The process of converting plaintext into ciphertext using an algorithm and a key, rendering data unreadable to unauthorised parties. Symmetric encryption uses the same key for both encryption and decryption, while asymmetric uses a key pair (public/private).
加密：使用算法和密钥将明文转换为密文的过程，使数据对未授权方不可读。对称加密使用同一密钥进行加解密，非对称加密使用密钥对（公钥/私钥）。
Malware: Malicious software designed to harm, exploit, or otherwise compromise a computer system. Types include viruses (attach to files), worms (self‑replicate across networks), trojans (disguised as legitimate software), and ransomware.
恶意软件：旨在危害、利用或以其他方式破坏计算机系统的恶意软件。类型包括病毒（附加于文件）、蠕虫（跨网络自我复制）、特洛伊木马（伪装为合法软件）和勒索软件。
Authentication: The process of verifying the identity of a user or device. Common methods include passwords, biometrics (fingerprints, facial recognition), and two‑factor authentication (combining something you know with something you have).
身份验证：验证用户或设备身份的过程。常用方法包括密码、生物识别（指纹、面部识别）和双因素认证（将你知道的东西与你拥有的东西结合）。
Backup: A copy of data stored separately from the original to protect against data loss due to hardware failure, accidental deletion, or cyber‑attacks. A robust backup strategy often follows the 3‑2‑1 rule (three copies, two different media, one off‑site).
备份：与原始数据分开存储的数据副本，用于防止因硬件故障、意外删除或网络攻击导致的数据
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