📚 SQA Higher Philosophy: Key Terms Memory Guide | SQA 高级哲学：核心术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential memory guide for SQA Higher Philosophy. This article breaks down complex philosophical vocabulary into clear definitions, exam-relevant examples and simple memory hooks. Each term is presented with a concise English explanation immediately followed by a matching Chinese explanation, so you can build bilingual fluency while targeting the exact terminology that appears in SQA assessments.
欢迎使用这份 SQA 高级哲学必备速记指南。本文把复杂的哲学术语拆解成清晰的定义、与考试相关的例子和简单的记忆线索。每个术语都先用英文简要解释，紧接着是与之对应的中文解析，帮助你建立双语理解的同时精准掌握 SQA 考试中出现的术语。
1. Epistemology Core Terms | 知识论核心术语
Grasping the fundamental vocabulary of epistemology is the first step toward evaluating theories of knowledge. Terms like ‘a priori’ and ‘tabula rasa’ distinguish between knowledge gained through reason and knowledge gained through experience.
掌握知识论的基本词汇是评估各种知识理论的第一步。像“先验”和“白板”这样的术语区分了通过理性获得的知识与通过经验获得的知识。
A priori knowledge: knowledge that is justified independently of sensory experience, such as ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Its truth can be known through reason alone.
先验知识：不依赖于感官经验即可得到辩护的知识，例如“所有单身汉都未婚”。单凭理性就能确知其真。
A posteriori knowledge: knowledge that depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence, such as ‘The sky is blue’. We need to observe the world to justify it.
后验知识：依赖于感官经验或经验证据的知识，例如“天空是蓝色的”。我们需要观察世界才能为其辩护。
Innate ideas: concepts or knowledge present in the mind from birth, according to rationalists like Plato and Descartes. The thesis is that not all knowledge is acquired through learning.
天赋观念：根据柏拉图和笛卡尔等理性主义者的看法，是与生俱来的概念或知识。其论点是，并非所有知识都通过学习获得。
Tabula rasa: Latin for ‘blank slate’, the empiricist claim that the mind at birth has no built-in content and that all knowledge comes from experience. Locke famously defended this view.
白板：拉丁语意为“空白板”，是经验主义的主张，认为心灵在出生时没有任何内在内容，所有知识都来自经验。洛克有力地捍卫了这一观点。
2. Empiricism and Rationalism | 经验主义与理性主义
These two rival schools disagree on the primary source of knowledge. Exam questions often ask you to contrast their core claims using the language of impressions, ideas and reason.
这两个对立的学派在知识的首要来源上存在分歧。考试题目经常要求你使用印象、观念和理性等语言来对比它们的核心主张。
Rationalism: the epistemological position that reason is the chief source of knowledge and that some concepts can be known independently of experience. Descartes’ meditation on the wax illustrates how reason corrects confused sensory data.
理性主义：一种知识论立场，认为理性是知识的主要来源，有些概念可以独立于经验而被认知。笛卡尔的蜂蜡沉思演示了理性如何纠正混乱的感官材料。
Empiricism: the view that all knowledge originates in sense experience. Hume argued that our most abstract ideas are ultimately copies of sense impressions, tracing every idea back to its sensory origin.
经验主义：认为所有知识都源于感官经验的观点。休谟论证说，我们最抽象的观念归根结底是感觉印象的摹本，每个观念都可以追溯到其感官来源。
Impressions and ideas: for Hume, impressions are the immediate, lively data of experience (e.g. feeling heat), while ideas are fainter copies used in thinking (e.g. recalling heat). This distinction underpins his empiricism.
印象与观念：对休谟而言，印象是直接而鲜活的经验材料（例如感到热），观念则是思维中使用的较为微弱的摹本（例如回忆热的感觉）。这一区分支撑着他的经验主义。
3. Scepticism and Definitions of Knowledge | 怀疑论与知识定义
SQA Higher Philosophy frequently tests the analysis of knowledge and the challenges posed by scepticism. Knowing the differences between global scepticism and local scepticism can sharpen your essays.
SQA 高级哲学经常考查对知识的分析以及怀疑论提出的挑战。了解全面怀疑论与局部怀疑论的区别可以使你的论文更敏锐。
Global scepticism: the radical position that knowledge is impossible in any domain. Descartes’ evil demon scenario is a classic global sceptical challenge, questioning whether we can be certain of anything at all.
全面怀疑论：一种激进立场，认为在任何领域知识都不可能。笛卡尔“恶魔”场景是一个经典的全面怀疑论挑战，质疑我们是否能够对任何事物有确定性。
Local scepticism: scepticism restricted to a specific domain, such as the external world or other minds. It allows that some knowledge may still be possible elsewhere.
局部怀疑论：局限于某一特定领域的怀疑论，比如对外部世界或他心的怀疑。它允许其他领域仍然可能存在知识。
Tripartite definition of knowledge: knowledge traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB). A subject S knows that p if and only if p is true, S believes that p, and S is justified in believing that p.
知识三元定义：传统上知识被定义为经辩护的真信念（JTB）。主体 S 知道命题 p，当且仅当 p 为真，S 相信 p，并且 S 对于相信 p 拥有辩护。
Gettier problem: a set of counterexamples showing that justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge. A belief can be justified and true purely by luck, undermining the JTB definition.
葛梯尔问题：一组反例，表明经过辩护的真信念并不足以构成知识。一个信念可以纯粹由于运气而既是辩护的又是真的，从而动摇了 JTB 定义。
4. Moral Philosophy: Utilitarianism | 道德哲学：功利主义
Utilitarianism is a core theory in the SQA Moral Philosophy unit. Being able to define the hedonic calculus and distinguish act from rule utilitarianism is vital for top marks.
功利主义是 SQA 道德哲学单元里的核心理论。能够定义快乐计算法并区分行为功利主义与规则功利主义，对于取得高分至关重要。
Principle of utility: the greatest happiness principle, which holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. Bentham formulated this consequentialist test.
功利原则：最大幸福原则，认为行为的对错与它们促进幸福的倾向成正比，与它们产生不幸的倾向成反比。边沁提出了这个后果主义检验标准。
Hedonic calculus: Bentham’s method for measuring pleasure and pain generated by an action, using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty and extent. It aims to make moral decisions calculable.
快乐计算法：边沁用来度量一种行为所带来的快乐和痛苦的方法，运用强度、持续期、确定性、范围等标准。其目标是使道德决策可以计算。
Act utilitarianism: judges each individual action directly by its consequences and the amount of happiness it produces. Critics say it could justify lying or breaking promises whenever the immediate outcome seems beneficial.
行为功利主义：直接根据每个具体行为的后果及其所产生的幸福量来评判行为。批评者认为，只要眼前结果看似有利，它就可能为说谎或违背承诺辩护。
Rule utilitarianism: assesses actions by appealing to general rules that, if universally followed, would maximise happiness. It avoids counter-intuitive results by focusing on rules rather than single acts.
规则功利主义：通过诉诸普遍规则来评判行为，这些规则如果被普遍遵守，将会最大化幸福。它通过聚焦规则而非单个行为来避免违反直觉的后果。
5. Kantian Ethics Key Concepts | 康德伦理学关键概念
Kant’s deontological theory centres on duty, reason and the categorical imperative. Mastering these technical terms will allow you to explain why Kant believes certain actions are absolutely forbidden.
康德的义务论理论以义务、理性和定言命令为核心。掌握这些术语将使你能够解释为何康德认为某些行为是绝对禁止的。
Good will: the only thing that is good without qualification, according to Kant. A good will acts from duty, not from inclination, anticipation of reward or fear of punishment.
善良意志：在康德看来，是唯一无条件善的东西。善良意志出于义务而行动，而不是出于爱好、对奖赏的期待或对惩罚的恐惧。
Categorical imperative (first formulation): ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ The test of universalisability determines whether a maxim is morally permissible.
定言命令（第一公式）：“只根据你能够同时意愿它成为一条普遍法则的准则来行动。” 可普遍化检验决定一条准则在道德上是否被允许。
Kingdom of ends: an ideal community in which all rational beings treat each other as ends in themselves, never merely as means. It represents the systematic union of all moral agents under common laws.
目的王国：一个理想的共同体，在其中所有理性存在者都把彼此作为目的本身来对待，而绝非仅仅当作手段。它代表着所有道德行动者在共同法则下的系统联合。
Duty for duty’s sake: the motive that gives an action its moral worth in Kant’s system. An act done from inclination or self-interest lacks authentic moral value even if its outcome is beneficial.
为义务而义务：在康德的体系里，赋予行为道德价值的动机。即便行为结果是有益的，出于爱好或自利而做的行动也缺乏真正的道德价值。
6. Virtue Ethics Terminology | 美德伦理学术语
Aristotelian virtue ethics shifts the focus from rules or consequences to the character of the moral agent. Key Greek terms like ‘eudaimonia’ and ‘phronesis’ describe a life well lived.
亚里士多德式美德伦理学将焦点从规则或后果转移到道德行动者的品格上。像“eudaimonia”和“phronesis”这样的关键希腊术语描述了一种活得好的人生。
Eudaimonia: often translated as ‘flourishing’ or ‘happiness’, it is the final end of human life, achieved by realising one’s function through rational activity in accordance with virtue.
Eudaimonia：常被译为“繁盛”或“幸福”，是人类生活的终极目的，通过按照德性进行理性活动来实现人的功能而达致。
Virtue (arete): a stable disposition to act, think, and feel in the right way. Virtues lie on a ‘golden mean’ between two vices, one of excess and one of deficiency, e.g. courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice.
美德（arete）：一种稳定地以正确方式行动、思考和感受的倾向。美德位于“中道”上，处在两个恶行——过度与不足——之间，例如勇敢是鲁莽与怯懦的中道。
Phronesis (practical wisdom): the intellectual virtue that enables a person to determine the right course of action in specific circumstances. It involves deliberation, perception and experience rather than mere rule-following.
Phronesis（实践智慧）：一种理智德性，使一个人能够在具体情境中确定正确的行动方式。它涉及深思熟虑、洞察力和经验，而不仅仅是遵循规则。
Function argument: Aristotle argues that the good for a human lies in performing the characteristic function (ergon) of a human being well, which is rational activity guided by virtue.
功能论证：亚里士多德认为，人类的善在于出色地履行人的特有功能（ergon），即由德性引导的理性活动。
7. Metaphysics: Free Will and Determinism | 形而上学：自由意志与决定论
The free will debate is a classic topic in Philosophy of Mind and Metaphysics. Terms like ‘compatibilism’ and ‘the principle of alternate possibilities’ help structure discussions about moral responsibility.
自由意志辩论是心灵哲学与形而上学的经典话题。“相容论”和“替代可能性原则”这类术语有助于组织关于道德责任的讨论。
Hard determinism: the view that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes, and that free will is therefore an illusion. Since freedom requires genuine alternative possibilities, hard determinists reject moral responsibility in the traditional sense.
强决定论：认为所有事件，包括人类行为，都由先行原因所决定，因此自由意志是一种幻觉。由于自由需要真正的替代可能性，强决定论者拒绝传统意义上的道德责任。
Libertarianism (free will): the position that some actions are not causally determined and that agents possess genuine, non-determined free will. This often requires a special form of agent-causation that breaks the deterministic chain.
自由意志论（自由意志）：认为某些行为并非因果决定的，行动者拥有真正的、非被决定的自由意志。这通常需要一种特殊的行动者因果作用来打破决定论链条。
Compatibilism: the thesis that free will and determinism are compatible. Soft determinists argue that freedom is not about the absence of causation, but about acting in accordance with one’s own desires, unimpeded by coercion.
相容论：认为自由意志与决定论相容的论题。温和决定论者主张，自由并不意味着没有原因，而是指按照自己的欲望行动而不受强制阻挠。
Principle of alternate possibilities: the intuition that a person is morally responsible for an action only if they could have done otherwise. Frankfurt-style counterexamples challenge this principle by presenting cases of coercion that seem to preserve responsibility without alternate possibilities.
替代可能性原则：一种直觉，即只有当一个人本可以不那么做时，他才对该行为负有道德责任。法兰克福式反例通过呈现那些看似保留责任却没有替代可能性的强制情境来挑战这一原则。
8. Philosophy of Religion: Arguments for God’s Existence | 宗教哲学：上帝存在的论证
The Philosophy of Religion option features famous arguments for and against belief in God. Understanding the structure of the ontological, cosmological and teleological arguments is essential for critical evaluation.
宗教哲学选题以支持和反对上帝信仰的著名论证为特色。理解本体论论证、宇宙论论证与目的论论证的结构，对于批判性评价至关重要。
Ontological argument: Anselm’s a priori argument that God, being ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’, must exist in reality, because existing in reality is greater than existing only in the mind. Gaunilo’s ‘perfect island’ is a famous response.
本体论论证：安瑟尔谟的先验论证，认为上帝作为“无法设想有比之更伟大者”必然存在于现实中，因为存在于现实比仅存在于心灵中更伟大。高尼洛的“完美之岛”是著名的回应。
Cosmological argument: Aquinas’ first three ways argue from motion, causation and contingency to a first mover, first cause and necessary being. The argument relies on the impossibility of an infinite regress.
宇宙论论证：阿奎那的前三路从运动、因果性和偶然性出发论证了第一推动者、第一因和必然存在者。该论证依赖于无限回溯的不可能性。
Teleological argument: Paley’s watchmaker analogy infers an intelligent designer from the complexity and apparent purpose of natural objects. Hume’s criticisms in the ‘Dialogues’ highlight problems with the analogy and the inference to a single perfect creator.
目的论论证：佩利的钟表匠类比从自然对象的复杂性和明显的目的性中推断出智慧设计者。休谟在《自然宗教对话录》中的批评凸显了这一类比以及推断出单一完满造物主的问题。
Problem of evil: the logical version argues that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God is logically incompatible with the existence of evil. The evidential version argues that the amount and distribution of suffering makes God’s existence unlikely. Theodicies attempt to reconcile God and evil.
恶的问题：逻辑版本论证说，全能全善的上帝存在与恶的存在在逻辑上不相容。证据版本则论证说，受苦的数量和分布使得上帝的存在不太可能。神正论试图调和上帝与恶。
9. Philosophy of Science: Induction and Falsification | 科学哲学：归纳与证伪
The Philosophy of Science unit requires a firm hold on the language of induction, falsification and paradigm shifts. These terms explain what makes science distinctive and how theories change over time.
科学哲学单元要求牢固掌握归纳、证伪和范式转移等术语。这些术语解释了科学的独特之处以及理论如何随时间变化。
Problem of induction: Hume argued that inductive inference from past regularities to future ones cannot be rationally justified without circularity, because any justification would itself rely on induction.
归纳问题：休谟论证说，从过去恒常性到未来恒常性的归纳推理无法在不犯循环论证的错误下得到理性辩护，因为任何辩护本身也要依赖归纳。
Falsificationism: Popper proposed that for a theory to be scientific, it must be falsifiable: there must be possible observations that would prove it false. He demarcated science from non-science by falsifiability rather than verifiability.
证伪主义：波普尔提出，一个理论要成为科学的，就必须是可证伪的：必须存在可能的观察足以证明其为假。他用可证伪性而非可证实性来划界科学与非科学。
Paradigm shift: Kuhn argued that science does not evolve smoothly but undergoes revolutionary changes in which one paradigm, an entire framework of theories, methods and assumptions, is replaced by another. Normal science operates within a paradigm until anomalies accumulate.
范式转移：库恩认为，科学并非平稳演进，而是经历革命性变化，在此过程中一个范式——由理论、方法和假设组成的整个框架——被另一个范式取代。常规科学在范式内运作，直至反常积累到一定程度。
Verification principle: the Logical Positivists held that a statement is cognitively meaningful only if it is either analytically true or empirically verifiable. Metaphysical and ethical claims were declared meaningless by this criterion.
可证实性原则：逻辑实证主义者认为，一个陈述只有在要么为分析真，要么可被经验证实时才具有认知意义。这一标准将形而上学和伦理学主张判为无意义。
10. Logic and Argument Terms | 逻辑与论证术语
SQA’s Arguments in Action unit rewards precise use of logical vocabulary. Terms like ‘validity’ and ‘modus ponens’ help you analyse arguments rigorously, whether you are evaluating classic philosophical texts or constructing your own reasoning.
SQA 的“论证实践”单元奖励对逻辑词汇的精准运用。“有效性”和“肯定前件”等术语帮助你严格分析论证，无论你是在评价经典哲学文本还是构建自己的推理。
Deductive argument: an argument in which the premises are intended to guarantee the truth of the conclusion. If a deductive argument is valid and all premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
演绎论证：前提旨在保证结论为真的论证。如果一个演绎论证是有效的且所有前提都为真，则结论必然为真。
Validity and soundness: an argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. It is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true. A valid argument can have false premises and a false conclusion.
有效性与可靠性：如果结论从前提中逻辑地得出，则该论证有效。如果论证有效且所有前提事实上为真，则它是可靠的。一个有效的论证可能有假前提和假结论。
Modus ponens: the argument form ‘If p then q; p; therefore q’. Modus tollens: ‘If p then q; not q; therefore not p’. These are fundamental valid forms of inference used in philosophical analysis.
肯定前件式：论证形式为“如果 p 则 q；p；因此 q”。否定后件式：“如果 p 则 q；非 q；因此非 p”。这些是哲学分析中基本有效的推理形式。
Informal fallacies: common errors in reasoning such as ad hominem (attacking the person instead of the argument), straw man (misrepresenting an opponent’s position) and false dilemma (presenting only two options when more exist). Spotting these strengthens your critical evaluation.
非形式谬误：推理中常见的错误，如人身攻击（攻击人而非论证）、稻草人（歪曲对手立场）和假两难（只给出两个选项而实际上存在更多）。识别这些谬误能加强你的批判性评价。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
屏轩国际教育cambridge primary/secondary checkpoint, cat4, ukiset,ukcat,igcse,alevel,PAT,STEP,MAT, ibdp,ap,ssat,sat,sat2课程辅导，国外大学本科硕士研究生博士课程论文辅导