📚 Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Memory Guide for Year 12 CCEA Physics | 词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to this quick memory guide for Year 12 CCEA Physics students. This bilingual resource presents essential vocabulary and terminology from mechanics, waves, electricity, quantum phenomena, nuclear physics and measurements. Each term is accompanied by a concise English definition and its Chinese equivalent, designed to help you recall key concepts efficiently during revision and exam preparation.
欢迎使用本速记指南，专为年12 CCEA 物理学生打造。这份双语资料涵盖了力学、波动、电学、量子现象、核物理以及测量学中的核心词汇与术语。每个术语均配有简洁的英文定义及对应的中文解释，帮助你在复习与备考过程中高效回顾关键概念。
1. Kinematics and Dynamics | 运动学与动力学
Displacement (s): The vector quantity that describes the shortest distance from the initial to the final position, together with direction. SI unit: metre (m).
位移 (s)： 描述从初始位置到最终位置的最短距离并带有方向的矢量。国际单位：米 (m)。
Velocity (v): The rate of change of displacement; a vector measured in metres per second (m s⁻¹).
速度 (v)： 位移的变化率；是矢量，单位为米每秒 (m s⁻¹)。
Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity, given by a = Δv / Δt. It is a vector quantity with unit m s⁻².
加速度 (a)： 速度的变化率，表示为 a = Δv / Δt。是矢量，单位为 m s⁻²。
Scalar and Vector: A scalar has magnitude only (e.g. speed, distance, mass). A vector has both magnitude and direction (e.g. velocity, displacement, force).
标量与矢量： 标量仅有大小（如速率、路程、质量）。矢量既有大小又有方向（如速度、位移、力）。
2. Forces and Newton’s Laws | 力与牛顿定律
Force (F): A push or pull that can change an object’s motion, measured in newtons (N). It is a vector.
力 (F)： 能够改变物体运动状态的推或拉，单位为牛顿 (N)，是矢量。
Net (Resultant) Force: The single force that represents the vector sum of all forces acting on an object. It determines the acceleration according to Newton’s second law.
净（合）力： 表示作用在物体上所有力的矢量和的单个力。根据牛顿第二定律，它决定物体的加速度。
Newton’s Second Law: The net force on an object equals the product of its mass and acceleration: F = m a.
牛顿第二定律： 物体所受净力等于其质量与加速度的乘积：F = m a。
Weight (W): The gravitational force acting on an object, W = m g, where g is the acceleration of free fall (≈ 9.81 m s⁻² on Earth).
重量 (W)： 作用在物体上的重力，W = m g，其中 g 为自由落体加速度（地球上约为 9.81 m s⁻²）。
Newton’s Third Law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal and opposite force on body A.
牛顿第三定律： 若物体 A 对物体 B 施加一个力，则物体 B 对物体 A 施加一个大小相等、方向相反的力。
3. Work, Energy and Power | 功、能量与功率
Work Done (W): The energy transferred when a force moves its point of application. For a constant force parallel to displacement: W = F s. Unit: joule (J).
功 (W)： 力移动其作用点时传递的能量。当恒力与位移平行时：W = F s。单位：焦耳 (J)。
Kinetic Energy (Eₖ): The energy an object possesses due to its motion, Eₖ = ½ m v². It is a scalar quantity.
动能 (Eₖ)： 物体由于运动而具有的能量，Eₖ = ½ m v²，是标量。
Gravitational Potential Energy: The energy stored in an object due to its position in a gravitational field. Near Earth’s surface: ΔE_p = m g Δh.
重力势能： 物体因其在引力场中的位置而储存的能量。近地表面：ΔE_p = m g Δh。
Power (P): The rate of doing work or transferring energy, P = W / t or P = ΔE / t. Unit: watt (W), equivalent to J s⁻¹.
功率 (P)： 做功或能量转换的速率，P = W / t 或 P = ΔE / t。单位：瓦特 (W)，相当于 J s⁻¹。
4. Momentum and Collisions | 动量与碰撞
Momentum (p): The product of an object’s mass and velocity, p = m v. It is a vector quantity with unit kg m s⁻¹.
动量 (p)： 物体质量与速度的乘积，p = m v，是矢量，单位为 kg m s⁻¹。
Impulse: The change in momentum caused by a force acting over a time interval: Impulse = F Δt = Δp. Unit: N s.
冲量： 由力在一段时间内作用引起的动量变化：冲量 = F Δt = Δp。单位：N s。
Conservation of Momentum: In a closed system (no external net force), total momentum before a collision equals total momentum after the collision.
动量守恒： 在无外净力的封闭系统中，碰撞前的总动量等于碰撞后的总动量。
Elastic Collision: Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. Objects bounce apart without permanent deformation or heat generation.
弹性碰撞： 动量与动能均守恒。物体弹开，无永久形变或热量产生。
Inelastic Collision: Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Some energy is converted to heat, sound or deformation.
非弹性碰撞： 动量守恒，但动能不守恒。部分能量转化为热、声或形变。
5. Materials: Stress, Strain and Young Modulus | 材料：应力、应变与杨氏模量
Stress (σ): The force applied per unit cross‑sectional area, σ = F / A. Unit: pascal (Pa) or N m⁻².
应力 (σ)： 单位横截面积上施加的力，σ = F / A。单位：帕斯卡 (Pa) 或 N m⁻²。
Strain (ε): The fractional extension produced in a material, ε = ΔL / L₀, where L₀ is original length. It is dimensionless.
应变 (ε)： 材料产生的伸长与原长之比，ε = ΔL / L₀，L₀ 为原始长度，无量纲。
Young Modulus (E): A measure of stiffness, calculated as tensile stress divided by tensile strain within the elastic limit: E = σ / ε. Unit: Pa.
杨氏模量 (E)： 衡量刚性的物理量，在弹性限度内为拉应力除以拉应变：E = σ / ε。单位：Pa。
Elastic Limit: The maximum stress a material can withstand before becoming permanently deformed.
弹性极限： 材料在发生永久形变前所能承受的最大应力。
Plastic Deformation: Irreversible change in shape; after the load is removed, the material does not return to its original dimensions.
塑性形变： 不可逆的形状变化；移除载荷后，材料不能恢复原状。
6. Waves: Properties and Behaviour | 波：性质与行为
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a point from its equilibrium position. For a sound wave, it relates to loudness.
振幅 (A)： 质点离开平衡位置的最大位移。对于声波，它与响度相关。
Frequency (f): The number of complete oscillations per second, measured in hertz (Hz). f = 1 / T.
频率 (f)： 每秒完整振动的次数，单位为赫兹 (Hz)，f = 1 / T。
Wavelength (λ): The distance between two consecutive points in phase (e.g. crest to crest) along the wave.
波长 (λ)： 波上两个相邻同相位点（如波峰到波峰）之间的距离。
Wave Speed (v): The speed at which energy or a wavefront travels. For a periodic wave: v = f λ.
波速 (v)： 能量或波前传播的速度。对于周期波：v = f λ。
Interference: The superposition of two waves, resulting in regions of reinforcement (constructive) and cancellation (destructive).
干涉： 两列波的叠加，产生加强（相长）和减弱（相消）的区域。
Diffraction: The spreading of a wave when it passes through a gap or around an obstacle; most noticeable when the gap size ≈ wavelength.
衍射： 波通过缝隙或绕过障碍物时的扩散现象；当缝隙尺寸与波长相近时最为显著。
7. Electricity: Current, Voltage and Resistance | 电学：电流、电压与电阻
Electric Current (I): The rate of flow of charge, I = ΔQ / Δt. Unit: ampere (A), equivalent to C s⁻¹.
电流 (I)： 电荷流动的速率，I = ΔQ / Δt。单位：安培 (A)，等于 C s⁻¹。
Potential Difference (p.d., V): The energy transferred per unit charge between two points in a circuit. 1 V = 1 J C⁻¹.
电势差（电压 V）： 电路中两点间每单位电荷传递的能量。1 V = 1 J C⁻¹。
Electromotive Force (emf, ε): The total energy supplied per unit charge by a source (e.g. battery) when no current flows.
电动势 (emf, ε)： 无电流时，电源（如电池）每单位电荷提供的总能量。
Resistance (R): The opposition to current flow, defined by R = V / I. Unit: ohm (Ω).
电阻 (R)： 对电流的阻碍作用，定义为 R = V / I。单位：欧姆 (Ω)。
Ohm’s Law: For a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current through it is directly proportional to the p.d. across it: V = I R.
欧姆定律： 对于温度恒定的金属导体，通过它的电流与其两端的电势差成正比：V = I R。
8. Circuits and Internal Resistance | 电路与内阻
Series Circuit: Components connected end‑to‑end; current is the same through all parts, while the total p.d. divides.
串联电路： 元件首尾相连；各处的电流相同，而总电压分配于各元件。
Parallel Circuit: Components connected across the same two points; the p.d. across each branch is equal, while currents add up.
并联电路： 元件连接在相同的两点之间；各支路电压相等，而总电流为各支路电流之和。
Kirchhoff’s First Law (Current Law): At any junction, the total current entering equals the total current leaving (conservation of charge).
基尔霍夫第一定律（电流定律）： 在任一节点，流入的总电流等于流出的总电流（电荷守恒）。
Potential Divider: A circuit with two resistors in series that divides the input voltage; V_out = V_in × (R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)).
分压器： 由两个串联电阻组成的电路，将输入电压分配；V_out = V_in × (R₂ / (R₁ + R₂))。
Internal Resistance (r): The inherent resistance of a power source that causes energy loss. Terminal p.d. V = ε − I r.
内阻 (r)： 电源固有的导致能量损耗的电阻。端电压 V = ε − I r。
9. Quantum and Particle Physics | 量子与粒子物理
Photon: A quantum of electromagnetic radiation, with energy E = h f = h c / λ, where h is Planck’s constant.
光子： 电磁辐射的量子，能量为 E = h f = h c / λ，其中 h 为普朗克常数。
Photoelectric Effect: The emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of frequency above the threshold frequency shines on it.
光电效应： 当频率高于极限频率的光照射金属表面时，电子从表面逸出的现象。
Work Function (Φ): The minimum energy required to release an electron from the surface of a material. Einstein’s equation: h f = Φ + E_k max.
功函数 (Φ)： 从材料表面释放一个电子所需的最小能量。爱因斯坦方程：h f = Φ + Eₖ max。
Energy Level: A discrete allowed energy state in an atom. Electrons transition between levels by absorbing or emitting photons.
能级： 原子中允许的离散能量状态。电子通过吸收或发射光子在能级间跃迁。
Wave‑Particle Duality: The concept that all particles exhibit both wave‑like and particle‑like behaviour (e.g. electrons can diffract).
波粒二象性： 所有粒子既表现出波动性又表现出粒子性的概念（例如电子可发生衍射）。
10. Radioactivity and Nuclear Physics | 放射性及核物理
Radioactive Decay: A spontaneous process in which an unstable nucleus emits radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) to become more stable.
放射性衰变： 不稳定的原子核自发地发射辐射（α、β、γ）以趋于稳定的过程。
Activity (A): The rate at which a radioactive source decays, measured in becquerels (Bq), where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second.
活度 (A)： 放射源衰变的速率，单位为贝克勒尔 (Bq)，1 Bq = 每秒 1 次衰变。
Half‑life (T½): The time taken for the activity (or number of radioactive nuclei) to fall to half its initial value.
半衰期 (T½)： 活度（或放射性原子核数目）减少到初始值一半所需的时间。
Binding Energy: The energy required to separate a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons. It accounts for the mass defect.
结合能： 将原子核分解成其构成质子和中子所需的能量。它解释了质量亏损。
Mass Defect: The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons. E = Δm c² relates it to binding energy.
质量亏损： 原子核的质量与其各核子质量总和之差。E = Δm c² 将其与结合能联系起来。
11. Measurements and Uncertainties | 测量与不确定度
Accuracy: How close a measured value is to the true value. It is influenced by systematic errors.
准确度： 测量值与真值的接近程度。受系统误差影响。
Precision: How closely repeated measurements agree with each other, regardless of accuracy. It indicates random error magnitude.
精密度： 重复测量结果之间的一致性，与准确度无关。反映随机误差的大小。
Systematic Error: A consistent bias in measurements, often due to faulty equipment or technique; cannot be reduced by repeating readings.
系统误差： 测量中一致的偏差，通常由设备或方法缺陷引起；重复读数无法减小。
Random Error: Fluctuations in readings caused by unpredictable variations; can be reduced by taking multiple measurements and averaging.
随机误差： 由不可预测的变化引起的读数波动；可通过多次测量取平均值减小。
Absolute Uncertainty: The interval within which a
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