📚 Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Reference Guide | 词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential glossary for SQA Year 12 Sociology. Mastering key terms is half the battle — this guide gives you clear, concise definitions in English and Chinese, organised by topic so you can learn and revise quickly.
欢迎使用你的 SQA 12年级社会学必备术语表。掌握关键术语是成功的一半——本指南提供中英文清晰简明的定义，按主题分类，助你快速学习和复习。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
Sociology: The systematic study of human society, social behaviour, and the interaction between individuals and social structures such as institutions, culture, and power relations.
社会学：对人类社会、社会行为以及个体与社会结构（如制度、文化、权力关系）之间互动的系统研究。
Society: A group of people who share a common territory, culture, and set of social institutions, and who interact with one another on a daily basis.
社会：一群共享共同领土、文化和一整套社会制度，并彼此日常互动的人。
Social Structure: The organised patterns of relationships and institutions that together form the framework of society, such as family, education, and the economy.
社会结构：关系与制度的有组织模式，共同构成社会的框架，如家庭、教育和经济。
Social Institution: A stable set of roles, norms, and values that govern a particular area of social life, e.g. the education system or the legal system.
社会制度：一套稳定的角色、规范和价值观，管理社会生活的特定领域，例如教育体系或法律体系。
Agency vs. Structure: The debate over whether individuals have free will to act (agency) or whether their behaviour is determined by social forces (structure).
能动性与结构的对立：关于个体是否有自由意志行动（能动性），还是其行为由社会力量（结构）决定的争论。
2. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalise the culture, norms, and values of their society.
社会化：个体终生学习和内化其社会文化、规范和价值观的过程。
Primary Socialisation: The initial phase of learning that takes place in early childhood, mainly within the family, where basic norms, language, and identity are formed.
初级社会化：发生在幼儿期的初始学习阶段，主要在家庭中进行，形成基本规范、语言和身份认同。
Secondary Socialisation: The later phase that occurs through institutions such as schools, peer groups, and the media, further shaping behaviour and beliefs.
次级社会化：后期通过学校、同伴群体和媒体等制度进行的阶段，进一步塑造行为和信仰。
Identity: An individual’s sense of self, shaped by social interactions and categorisations such as gender, class, ethnicity, and age.
身份/认同：个体的自我感，由社会互动以及性别、阶级、种族和年龄等分类塑造。
Looking-glass Self: Cooley’s concept that we develop our self-image based on how we imagine others perceive us.
镜中我：库利的概念，指我们基于对他人如何看待自己的想象来发展自我形象。
3. Culture, Norms and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture: The shared way of life of a society or group, including language, customs, beliefs, and material objects.
文化：一个社会或群体共享的生活方式，包括语言、习俗、信仰和物质对象。
Norms: Informal rules or expectations that guide behaviour in particular situations — for example, queuing politely or saying ‘thank you’.
规范：在特定情境中指导行为的非正式规则或期望——例如，礼貌排队或说’谢谢’。
Values: Deeply held beliefs about what is right, important, or desirable — such as honesty, equality, or respect.
价值观：关于什么是正确、重要或可取之物的根深蒂固的信念——如诚实、平等或尊重。
Subculture: A cultural group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms and values, yet shares many elements of the dominant culture.
亚文化：更大文化中的文化群体，有其独特的规范和价值观，但仍共享主流文化的许多元素。
Cultural Diversity: The coexistence of a variety of cultural traditions, languages, and lifestyles within one society.
文化多样性：一个社会内多种文化传统、语言和生活方式共存的状态。
4. Roles and Status | 角色与地位
Status: The social position a person holds within a group or society, which carries certain expectations for behaviour.
地位：个人在群体或社会中占据的社会位置，带有某些行为期望。
Ascribed Status: A position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life, such as gender, race, or royalty.
先赋地位：在出生时或后来非自愿地被赋予的位置，如性别、种族或王室身份。
Achieved Status: A position earned through personal effort, skill, or choice, such as a degree, career, or athlete status.
自致地位：通过个人努力、技能或选择赢得的位置，如学位、职业或运动员身份。
Role: The set of expectations, duties, and behaviours associated with a particular status — for example, the role of a student includes attending classes and studying.
角色：与特定地位相关的一系列期望、义务和行为——例如，学生的角色包括上课和学习。
Role Conflict: A situation where an individual faces incompatible demands from two or more statuses they hold simultaneously.
角色冲突：个人同时拥有的两个或多个地位对其提出互不相容的要求时所面临的情况。
5. Social Control and Deviance | 社会控制与偏差行为
Social Control: The mechanisms, strategies, and institutions society uses to regulate individual behaviour and maintain order.
社会控制：社会用以规范个人行为、维持秩序的机制、策略和制度。
Deviance: Behaviour that violates significant social norms, resulting in disapproval, sanctions, or punishment.
偏差行为：违反重要社会规范的行为，会引起否定、制裁或惩罚。
Formal Social Control: Control exercised by official agencies such as the police, courts, and prisons, based on written laws.
正式社会控制：由警察、法院和监狱等官方机构实施的、基于成文法的控制。
Informal Social Control: Unwritten mechanisms like gossip, ridicule, or praise used by peers, family, and community to encourage conformity.
非正式社会控制：同伴、家庭和社区通过闲话、嘲讽或表扬等非成文机制来鼓励遵从。
Sanctions: Penalties or rewards used to enforce norms — positive sanctions (praise, awards) or negative sanctions (fines, imprisonment).
制裁：用于执行规范的惩罚或奖励——正面制裁（表扬、奖励）或负面制裁（罚款、监禁）。
6. Social Stratification: Class | 社会分层：阶级
Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals into layers based on wealth, power, status, or other resources.
社会分层：根据财富、权力、地位或其他资源将个人划分为等级的层级排列。
Social Class: A group of people who share a similar economic position, often defined by occupation, income, and lifestyle.
社会阶级：经济地位相似的一群人，通常由职业、收入和生活方式界定。
Life Chances: Weber’s term referring to the opportunities individuals have to improve their quality of life and achieve success.
生活机会：韦伯的术语，指个人改善生活质量和获得成功的机会。
Class System: An open stratification system where social position is partly achieved, allowing for social mobility, unlike closed caste systems.
阶级体系：一种开放的分层体系，社会地位部分是自致的，允许社会流动，不同于封闭的种姓制度。
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat: In Marxist theory, the capitalist class who own the means of production, and the working class who must sell their labour.
资产阶级与无产阶级：马克思主义理论中，拥有生产资料的资本家阶级和必须出卖劳动力的工人阶级。
7. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与种族
Sex: The biological classification of male and female based on chromosomal and anatomical differences.
生理性别：基于染色体和解剖差异对男性和女性的生物学分类。
Gender: The culturally and socially constructed roles, expectations, and identities associated with being masculine or feminine.
社会性别：文化和社会建构的与男性气质或女性气质相关的角色、期望和身份。
Ethnicity: A shared cultural heritage, including language, ancestry, and traditions, that distinguishes one group from another.
族裔/种族：共享的文化遗产，包括语言、祖先和传统，使一个群体区别于另一个。
Patriarchy: A system of male dominance in which men hold primary power and authority in political, economic, and social institutions.
父权制：一种男性占主导地位的系统，男性在政治、经济和社会制度中拥有主要权力和权威。
Sexism: Prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender, often reinforcing stereotypes and inequality.
性别歧视：基于个人的生理性别或社会性别的偏见或歧视，常常强化刻板印象和不平等。
8. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power: The ability of an individual or group to achieve their goals, even when faced with resistance from others.
权力：个人或团体即使遇到他人抵抗也能实现其目标的能力。
Authority: Legitimate power that is accepted by those who are subject to it, based on consent rather than coercion.
权威：被服从者认可的正当权力，基于同意而非强制。
Traditional Authority (Weber): Authority based on long-standing customs and traditions, e.g. monarchies, tribal leaders.
传统型权威（韦伯）：基于悠久习俗和传统的权威，如君主制、部落首领。
Charismatic Authority: Authority derived from an individual’s extraordinary personal qualities or charisma, inspiring devotion and loyalty.
魅力型权威：源于个人非凡品质或魅力的权威，激发他人的奉献和忠诚。
Rational-Legal Authority: Authority grounded in impersonal rules, regulations, and laws, most common in modern bureaucracies and democracies.
法理型权威：基于非人格化的规则、规章和法律的权威，在现代官僚机构和民主国家中最常见。
9. Social Mobility and Poverty | 社会流动与贫困
Social Mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between different social positions, either upward or downward, across generations or within a single lifetime.
社会流动：个体或群体在不同社会地位之间的变动，可向上或向下，可代际或代内。
Intragenerational Mobility: A change in an individual’s social position within their own lifetime, such as a promotion or job loss.
代内流动：个人在其生命期内社会地位的改变，如晋升或失业。
Intergenerational Mobility: Movement in social status from one generation to the next, e.g. comparing parents’ and children’s occupations.
代际流动：社会地位从一代到下一代的变动，例如比较父母和子女的职业。
Absolute Poverty: A severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, shelter, and access to healthcare.
绝对贫困：基本人类需求的严重剥夺，包括食物、安全饮用水、住所和医疗保健。
Relative Poverty: A condition where a person lacks the resources to meet the average standard of living in their society, leading to social exclusion.
相对贫困：个人因缺乏资源而无法达到其社会平均生活水平的状况，导致社会排斥。
10. Research Methods Key Terms | 研究方法关键术语
Quantitative Methods: Research approaches that collect numerical data and often use statistical analysis, such as surveys and official statistics.
定量方法：收集数值数据并通常使用统计分析的研究方法，如问卷调查和官方统计数据。
Qualitative Methods: Research strategies that gather non-numerical data to understand meanings and experiences, such as interviews and observations.
定性方法：收集非数值数据以理解意义和体验的研究策略，如访谈和观察。
Validity: The extent to which a research method or instrument measures what it claims to measure — a true reflection of social reality.
效度：研究方法或工具在多大程度上测量了它所声称要测量的内容——对社会现实的真实反映。
Reliability: The consistency of a research study; if repeated under the same conditions, it should yield similar results.
信度：研究的一致性；如果在相同条件下重复进行，应得出相似的结果。
Sampling: The process of selecting a subset of the population to participate in research, with types including random, stratified, and snowball sampling.
抽样：从总体中选择一个子集参与研究的过程，类型包括随机抽样、分层抽样和滚雪球抽样。
11. Theoretical Perspectives – Quick Glossary | 理论视角速览
Functionalism: A macro perspective that views society as a system of interconnected parts working together to maintain stability; key thinkers — Durkheim, Parsons.
功能主义：一种宏观视角，视社会为一个相互连接的部分共同工作以维持稳定的系统；代表人物——涂尔干、帕森斯。
Marxism (Conflict Theory): A perspective focusing on class conflict and economic inequality as the driving forces of social change; Marx argued society is divided between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.
马克思主义（冲突论）：一种关注阶级冲突和经济不平等作为社会变革驱动力的视角；马克思认为社会分裂为资产阶级和无产阶级。
Feminism: A conflict perspective that highlights gender inequalities and patriarchal structures; varieties include liberal, radical, and intersectional feminism.
女性主义：一种强调性别不平等和父权结构的冲突视角；变体包括自由主义、激进和交叉性女性主义。
Interactionism: A micro-level approach that studies how individuals interact using symbols and shared meanings; key ideas — labelling theory, Goffman’s dramaturgy.
符号互动论：一种微观层面的方法，研究个体如何运用符号和共享意义进行互动；关键概念——标签理论、戈夫曼的拟剧论。
Postmodernism: A sceptical approach that questions grand narratives and absolute truths, emphasising diversity, fragmentation, and the role of media and consumption in identity.
后现代主义：一种质疑宏大叙事和绝对真理的怀疑论方法，强调多样性、碎片化以及媒体和消费在身份塑造中的作用。
12. Quick Revision Tips for Terminology | 术语速记技巧
Mnemonics: Create memorable phrases from the first letters of a list — for example, ‘A Very Smart Role’ for Ascribed, Values, Socialisation, Role. Use visual imagery to lock in meanings.
记忆术：从一系列词汇的首字母组成易记短语——例如，用’先辈价值角色’记住先赋地位、价值观、社会化、角色。使用视觉意象巩固含义。
Concept Maps: Draw links between related terms to see the bigger picture. Place ‘Socialisation’ at the centre and branch out to primary, secondary, norms, values, identity.
概念图：画出相关术语之间的连线以看到整体图景。将’社会化’置于中心，再分支到初级、次级、规范、价值观、身份。
Teach Someone: Explain a term out loud to a peer or in your own words — the act of teaching helps you spot gaps and strengthens recall.
教给别人听：向同伴或用自己的话大声解释一个术语——教授行为有助于你发现漏洞并加强记忆。
Self-Quizzing: Use flashcards with the term on one side and the definition on the other; test yourself regularly and shuffle them to avoid memorising the order.
自测练习：使用抽认卡，一面写术语，另一面写定义；定期自测并打乱顺序，避免记住顺序而非内容。
Application Grid: Build a table with columns ‘Term – Definition – Real-life Example – Sociologist’. This forces you to connect each concept to evidence and context.
应用网格：制作一个表格，列标题为’术语 – 定义 – 现实例子 – 社会学家’。这迫使你将每个概念与证据和情境联系起来。
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