📚 Year 12 AQA Physical Education: Key Terminology Quick Reference Guide | Year 12 AQA 体育：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the key terminology in AQA Year 12 Physical Education is essential for exam success. This guide breaks down complex terms into bite-sized bilingual explanations, helping you build a strong vocabulary foundation across anatomy, physiology, biomechanics, skill acquisition, sport psychology and socio-cultural topics. Use it for quick revision and memory retention.
掌握 AQA Year 12 体育的关键术语是考试成功的必备条件。本指南将复杂术语分解为中英双语小解释，帮助你在解剖学、生理学、生物力学、技能习得、运动心理学及社会文化课题上建立坚实的词汇基础，可用于快速复习与记忆强化。
1. Cardiovascular System Terms | 心血管系统术语
Heart rate (HR) is the number of times the heart beats per minute. It can be measured at rest or during exercise and is an indicator of cardiac demand.
心率（HR）是心脏每分钟跳动的次数。可以在休息或运动时测量，是心脏负荷的指标。
Stroke volume (SV) refers to the volume of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in one contraction. Trained athletes often have a higher stroke volume at rest and during exercise.
每搏输出量（SV）指左心室每次收缩泵出的血液量。受过训练的运动员在休息和运动时通常有更高的每搏输出量。
Cardiac output (Q) is the total volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute. It is a product of stroke volume and heart rate, summarised by the formula below.
心输出量（Q）是左心室每分钟泵出的血液总量，是每搏输出量与心率的乘积，如下方公式总结。
Q = SV × HR
Bradycardia is a resting heart rate below 60 bpm, commonly seen in endurance athletes due to increased stroke volume and cardiac efficiency.
心动过缓指静息心率低于 60 次/分，常见于耐力运动员，由于每搏输出量增加和心脏效率提高所致。
Vascular shunt mechanism redistributes blood flow during exercise, directing blood away from inactive organs (such as the gut) towards the working muscles by vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
血管分流机制在运动时重新分配血流，通过血管收缩和舒张将血液从不活跃器官（如肠道）导向工作的肌肉。
Quick Tip: Remember Q = SV × HR as “Queen Saves Hearts” – Q for Queen, SV for Saves, HR for Hearts.
速记提示：把 Q = SV × HR 记作“皇后拯救心脏”。
2. Respiratory System Terms | 呼吸系统术语
Tidal volume (TV) is the volume of air inhaled or exhaled per breath during quiet breathing. During exercise, tidal volume increases significantly to meet oxygen demands.
潮气量（TV）是静息呼吸时每次吸入或呼出的空气量。运动时潮气量显著增加以满足氧气需求。
Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a maximum inhalation. It is not usually a limiting factor in healthy individuals.
肺活量（VC）是最大吸气后能尽力呼出的最大空气量，通常不是健康个体的限制因素。
Minute ventilation (VE) is the total volume of air moved into and out of the lungs per minute. It is calculated by multiplying tidal volume by breathing frequency (f).
每分通气量（VE）是每分钟进出肺部的空气总量，由潮气量乘以呼吸频率（f）计算得出。
VE = TV × f
Arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-vO₂ diff) represents the difference between the oxygen content of arterial blood and venous blood. It indicates how much oxygen is extracted by the muscles; it widens during exercise.
动静脉氧差（a-vO₂ diff）表示动脉血与静脉血氧含量的差值，反映肌肉摄氧量的多少；运动时该差值会增大。
Gaseous exchange occurs in the alveoli where oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out, driven by partial pressure gradients.
气体交换在肺泡进行，氧气顺分压梯度扩散进入血液，二氧化碳扩散出血液。
3. Energy Systems and Exercise Physiology | 能量系统与运动生理学
The ATP-PC system provides immediate energy for high-intensity activity lasting up to about 10 seconds. It uses phosphocreatine (PC) to rapidly resynthesise ATP without oxygen and without producing lactic acid.
ATP-PC 系统为持续约 10 秒以内的高强度活动提供即时能量。它利用磷酸肌酸（PC）在无氧、不产生乳酸的情况下快速再合成 ATP。
The glycolytic system (anaerobic lactic system) breaks down glucose without oxygen to produce ATP and lactic acid. It fuels high-intensity efforts lasting from around 10 to 90 seconds.
糖酵解系统（无氧乳酸系统）在无氧条件下分解葡萄糖产生 ATP 和乳酸，为约 10 到 90 秒的高强度运动供能。
The aerobic system uses oxygen to break down carbohydrates and fats, producing large amounts of ATP. It predominates in activities lasting longer than 2-3 minutes.
有氧系统利用氧气分解碳水化合物和脂肪，产生大量 ATP，在持续超过 2-3 分钟的运动中占主导地位。
VO₂ max is the maximal volume of oxygen that can be taken up, transported and utilised by the body per minute. It is a key indicator of aerobic fitness.
VO₂ max 是身体每分钟能摄取、运输和利用的最大氧气量，是衡量有氧能力的关键指标。
Lactate threshold (or OBLA – onset of blood lactate accumulation) marks the exercise intensity at which lactic acid starts to accumulate in the blood faster than it can be removed.
乳酸阈（或 OBLA——血乳酸积累起点）表示运动强度达到乳酸在血液中的累积速率超过清除速率时的转折点。
EPOC (excess post-exercise oxygen consumption) is the increased rate of oxygen intake following strenuous exercise, required to return the body to its resting state.
EPOC（运动后过量氧耗）是剧烈运动后氧气摄入量增加的阶段，用于使身体恢复到静息状态。
4. Biomechanics Basics | 生物力学基础
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement; it is a vector quantity. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
速度是位移的变化率，为矢量。加速度是速度的变化率。
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity, expressed as p = m × v. A heavier or faster object has greater momentum.
动量是质量与速度的乘积，表示为 p = m × v。物体越重或速度越快，动量越大。
p = m × v
Impulse is the product of force and the time over which it acts: Impulse = F × t. It equals the change in momentum.
冲量是力与作用时间的乘积：冲量 = F × t，等于动量的变化量。
Impulse = F × t
Newton’s First Law (inertia) states that a body will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. Newton’s Second Law links force, mass and acceleration (F = ma). Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
牛顿第一定律（惯性）指出，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动，除非受到外力作用。牛顿第二定律将力、质量与加速度关联起来（F = ma）。牛顿第三定律指出，每个作用力都有一个大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。
Lever systems in the human body consist of a fulcrum (joint), effort (muscle force) and resistance (weight). A first-class lever (e.g., neck extension) has the fulcrum between effort and resistance. A second-class lever (e.g., calf raise) has the resistance between fulcrum and effort. In a third-class lever (e.g., bicep curl), the effort lies between fulcrum and resistance; this is the most common lever in the body, built for speed and range of motion.
人体中的杠杆系统由支点（关节）、动力（肌肉力）和阻力（重力）组成。第一类杠杆（如颈部后仰）支点在力和阻力之间。第二类杠杆（如提踵）阻力在支点和力之间。第三类杠杆（如二头肌弯举）力在支点和阻力之间；这是人体中最常见的杠杆类型，利于速度和运动幅度。
Quick Tip: Think “FRE 123” – Fulcrum in the middle = 1st class; Resistance in the middle = 2nd class; Effort in the middle = 3rd class.
速记提示：想“FRE 123”——中间是支点→1 类；中间是阻力→2 类；中间是动力→3 类。
5. Skill Classification | 技能分类
An open skill is performed in an unpredictable, changing environment (e.g., a pass in football). A closed skill is performed in a stable, self-paced environment (e.g., a free throw in basketball).
开放性技能在不可预测、多变的环境中执行（如足球中的传球）。闭锁性技能在稳定、自定进度的环境中执行（如篮球罚球）。
A gross skill involves large muscle movements with little precision (e.g., running), while a fine skill requires small, precise movements (e.g., a snooker shot).
粗大技能涉及大肌肉群的运动，精密性要求低（如跑步）；细小技能需要小肌肉的精确运动（如斯诺克击球）。
Skills can be classified on a continuum: discrete (clear beginning and end, e.g., a throw), serial (a series of discrete skills, e.g., a triple jump), and continuous (cyclical with no clear start or finish, e.g., cycling).
技能可按连续体分类：分立技能（明确开始与结束，如投掷）、序列技能（一系列分立技能，如三级跳远）和连续技能（周期性无明确起止，如骑行）。
A self-paced skill is initiated when the performer decides (e.g., a golf swing). An externally-paced skill is triggered by an outside event (e.g., returning a serve in tennis).
自定进度技能由执行者自行决定启动时机（如高尔夫挥杆）；外部节奏技能由外部事件触发（如网球接发球）。
Skills can also be simple (few decisions, low information processing) or complex (many decisions, high cognitive demand).
技能也可分为简单技能（决策少、信息处理量低）和复杂技能（决策多、认知要求高）。
6. Practice Methods | 练习方法
Whole practice involves performing the entire skill without breaking it down. It works well for discrete, highly organised skills (e.g., a golf swing).
完整练习法指不分解地执行整个技能，适用于分立性强、组织程度高的技能（如高尔夫挥杆）。
Part practice breaks the skill into sub-routines, each practised separately before combining. It suits complex, low-organisation skills (e.g., learning a tennis serve by practicing ball toss and swing separately).
分解练习法将技能分成多个子程序，分别练习后再组合，适合复杂、组织性低的技能（如通过分别练习抛球和挥拍来学习网球发球）。
Whole-part-whole practice involves trying the whole skill first, isolating a problematic part for focused practice, then reintegrating it into the whole movement.
完整-分解-完整练习法是先尝试完整技能，再将困难部分单独练习，最后重新整合到整体动作中。
Progressive part practice links the first two parts, then the first three parts, and so on. It is often called chaining and is useful for serial skills such as a gymnastics routine.
渐进分解练习法将前两部分串联，再加入第三部分，依此类推，常称为链式练习，适合体操套路等序列技能。
Massed practice involves continuous, repetitive training with few rest intervals, suitable for discrete skills of short duration. Distributed practice intersperses rest periods, aiding learning and fatigue management.
集中练习指连续重复训练且休息间隔少，适合持续时间短的分立技能。分散练习穿插休息时间，有利于学习和疲劳管理。
Fixed practice (drill) repeats the same technique in a stable environment; variable practice changes conditions to develop adaptability. Both are often mixed for open skills.
固定练习（操练）在稳定环境中重复同一技术；变换练习改变条件以培养适应能力。对于开放技能常混合使用两者。
7. Feedback and Guidance | 反馈与指导
Intrinsic feedback comes from the performer’s own sensory system (e.g., feeling a well-timed shot). Extrinsic feedback is provided by an outside source such as a coach or video replay.
内在反馈来自执行者自身的感觉系统（如感受到一次时机恰当的击球）。外在反馈由外部来源提供，如教练或视频回放。
Knowledge of performance (KP) gives information about the quality of the movement and technique. Knowledge of results (KR) focuses on the outcome (e.g., the ball went into the net).
表现认知（KP）提供关于动作质量和技术的信息。结果认知（KR）关注的是结果（如球进了网）。
Positive feedback encourages repetition of the desired behaviour; negative feedback highlights errors and discourages undesirable actions.
正面反馈鼓励重复期望的行为；负面反馈指出错误并抑制不良动作。
Visual guidance uses demonstrations, images or video clips. Verbal guidance involves spoken explanations or cues. Manual guidance physically moves the performer; mechanical guidance uses equipment (e.g., a float in swimming) to support or restrict movement.
视觉指导使用示范、图片或视频。言语指导包括口头解释或提示。手动指导直接移动学习者的身体；机械指导借助器材（如游泳浮板）来支撑或限制动作。
Beginners often benefit from extrinsic, KR-based feedback and mechanical guidance, while elite performers rely more on intrinsic feeling and KP feedback.
初学者通常受益于外部、以结果认知为主的反馈和机械指导，而精英运动员更多地依赖内在感觉和表现认知反馈。
8. Sport Psychology: Arousal and Anxiety | 运动心理学：唤醒与焦虑
Arousal is the general physiological and psychological activation of the body, varying from deep sleep to intense excitement. It is linked to the somatic and cognitive states.
唤醒是身体一般的生理与心理激活状态，范围从深睡到极度兴奋，与体感状态和认知状态相关。
Drive theory suggests that performance increases linearly with arousal; the more aroused, the better the performance of well-learned tasks. It is useful for simple or gross skills but less accurate for complex tasks.
驱动理论认为表现随唤醒水平线性提高，对于熟练掌握的任务越是兴奋表现越好。该理论适用于简单或粗大技能，但对复杂任务预测性较差。
Inverted-U theory posits that performance peaks at moderate arousal levels; too little or too much arousal leads to suboptimal performance. The optimal point varies with skill type and individual differences.
倒 U 型理论指出表现在中等唤醒水平时达到顶峰，唤醒过低或过高都导致表现下降。最优点因技能类型和个体差异而有所不同。
Catastrophe theory predicts a sudden, dramatic decline in performance when arousal becomes too high, combined with high cognitive anxiety. Unlike the inverted-U, recovery from this drop requires a significant reduction in arousal.
突变理论预测当唤醒水平过高并伴有高度认知焦虑时，表现会突然急剧下滑。和倒 U 型不同，必须大幅降低唤醒才能恢复。
Trait anxiety is a personality characteristic; state anxiety is a temporary
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