📚 Year 12 AQA Science: Vocabulary Memorisation Guide | AQA 12年级科学：术语速记指南
Mastering scientific vocabulary is essential for success in Year 12 AQA Science. This guide compiles key terms you must know across Biology, Chemistry, and Physics, along with memory tips to help them stick. Whether you are dissecting a cell diagram, balancing an equation, or calculating resultant force, precise use of language will earn you marks in both short-answer and extended-response questions.
掌握科学术语是 AQA 12 年级科学取得优异成绩的基石。本指南汇集了生物、化学和物理中你必须掌握的核心词汇，并附上记忆技巧，帮助它们牢牢印在你的脑海里。无论你是在剖析细胞结构图、配平化学方程式，还是在计算合力，精准的术语使用都会让你在简答题和长篇回答中斩获分数。
1. Variables and Fair Testing | 变量与公平测试
Independent variable – the factor you deliberately change or manipulate in an experiment. It is the cause you are testing.
自变量 – 在实验中你故意改变或操纵的因素。它是你要检验的“因”。
Dependent variable – the factor you measure or observe; its value depends on the independent variable.
因变量 – 你测量或观察的因素；其数值取决于自变量。
Control variable – any factor that is kept constant throughout the experiment to ensure a fair test. Without control variables, you cannot be sure that the independent variable is the only thing causing the change.
控制变量 – 在整个实验过程中保持恒定的因素，用以确保公平测试。如果没有控制变量，你就无法确定只有自变量引起了变化。
Confounding variable – an unmeasured variable that changes alongside the independent variable and could affect the results, leading to invalid conclusions. In AQA mark schemes, identifying a key control variable often scores a mark.
混淆变量 – 一个未测量的变量，它与自变量同时变化，可能影响结果，导致结论无效。在 AQA 评分方案中，指出一个关键的控制变量通常能得一分。
2. Errors, Precision and Accuracy | 误差、精密度与准确度
Random error causes readings to be scattered around the true value unpredictably. It affects precision (the closeness of repeated readings to one another). Repeating measurements and calculating a mean reduces random error.
随机误差导致读数不可预测地分散在真值周围。它影响精密度（重复读数彼此之间的接近程度）。重复测量并计算平均值可以减少随机误差。
Systematic error shifts all readings by a fixed amount in the same direction, often due to faulty equipment or a design flaw. It affects accuracy (the closeness of a measured value to the true value).
系统误差使所有读数都朝同一方向偏移一个固定量，通常由仪器故障或设计缺陷导致。它影响准确度（测量值与真值的接近程度）。
Anomalous result – a reading that does not fit the overall pattern. AQA expects you to identify anomalous results and exclude them when calculating the mean, or to repeat the measurement.
异常值 – 与整体模式不符的读数。AQA 要求你识别异常值，在计算平均值时予以剔除，或者重复测量。
| Term | Definition | 定义 |
| Precision | How close repeated readings are to each other; linked to random error. | 重复读数彼此之间的接近程度；与随机误差相关。 |
| Accuracy | How close a measurement is to the true value; linked to systematic error. | 测量值与真值的接近程度；与系统误差相关。 |
3. Mole and Stoichiometry | 摩尔与化学计量
Mole (mol) – the SI unit for amount of substance. One mole contains exactly 6.02214076 × 10²³ elementary entities. This number is the Avogadro constant (Nₐ).
摩尔（mol）– 物质的量的国际单位。1 摩尔恰好包含 6.02214076 × 10²³ 个基本单元。这个数值是阿伏伽德罗常数（Nₐ）。
Molar mass (M) – the mass per mole of a substance, with units g mol⁻¹. It is numerically equal to the relative formula mass (Mᵣ).
摩尔质量（M）– 每摩尔物质的质量，单位为 g mol⁻¹。它在数值上等于相对式量（Mᵣ）。
Empirical formula – the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.
经验式（最简式）– 化合物中各元素原子的最简整数比。
Molecular formula – the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
分子式 – 分子中各元素原子的实际数目。
n = m ÷ M (amount = mass ÷ molar mass)
c = n ÷ V (concentration = amount ÷ volume; V in dm³)
4. Cell Structure Terminology | 细胞结构术语
Cell membrane – a partially permeable layer that controls what enters and leaves the cell. Found in both plant and animal cells.
细胞膜 – 一层部分透性的膜，控制物质的进出。动植物细胞均有。
Nucleus – contains genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities. Present in eukaryotic cells.
细胞核 – 含有遗传物质（DNA），控制细胞活动。存在于真核细胞中。
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) – the site of aerobic respiration; they produce ATP. Often called the powerhouse of the cell.
线粒体 – 有氧呼吸的场所，产生 ATP。常被称为细胞的“发电站”。
Ribosome – a tiny organelle made of protein and rRNA; the site of protein synthesis (translation). Found in all living cells.
核糖体 – 由蛋白质和 rRNA 组成的微小细胞器；蛋白质合成（翻译）的场所。所有活细胞中均有。
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – a network of membranes studded with ribosomes; it folds and transports proteins.
粗面内质网（RER）– 附着核糖体的膜网络，负责折叠和运输蛋白质。
Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis; found in plant cells and algae.
叶绿体 – 含有叶绿素，是光合作用的场所；存在于植物细胞和藻类中。
5. Mechanics and Motion | 力学与运动
Displacement (s) – a vector quantity; the straight-line distance in a given direction from the origin.
位移（s）– 矢量；从原点出发的直线距离，有方向。
Velocity (v) – rate of change of displacement; a vector. Speed is the scalar counterpart.
速度（v）– 位移的变化率；是矢量。速率是其标量对应量。
Acceleration (a) – rate of change of velocity; unit m s⁻². Deceleration is negative acceleration.
加速度（a）– 速度的变化率；单位 m s⁻²。减速是负加速度。
Resultant force – the single force that represents the vector sum of all forces acting on an object. Newton’s second law: F = m a.
合力 – 代表作用在物体上所有力矢量和的单个力。牛顿第二定律：F = m a。
Momentum (p) – product of mass and velocity; p = m v. Conserved in closed systems.
动量（p）– 质量与速度的乘积；p = m v。在封闭系统中守恒。
SUVAT equations – a set of five equations linking s, u, v, a, t for uniform acceleration. Know them by heart for AQA Paper 2.
SUVAT 方程 – 描述匀加速运动中 s, u, v, a, t 关系的五个方程。AQA 试卷 2 必须熟记。
6. Waves and Electricity Terms | 波与电学词汇
Wavelength (λ) – the distance between two consecutive corresponding points on a wave, e.g. crest to crest.
波长（λ）– 波上两个相邻对应点（如波峰到波峰）之间的距离。
Frequency (f) – number of complete wave cycles passing a point per second; unit hertz (Hz).
频率（f）– 每秒通过某点的完整波周期数；单位赫兹（Hz）。
Amplitude (A) – the maximum displacement of a point on a wave from its equilibrium position. In transverse waves, it is the height of a crest.
振幅（A）– 波上某点离开平衡位置的最大位移。在横波中，就是波峰的高度。
v = f λ (wave speed = frequency × wavelength)
Current (I) – rate of flow of charge; unit ampere (A). In metals, it is carried by delocalised electrons.
电流（I）– 电荷流动的速率；单位安培（A）。在金属中，由自由电子携带。
Potential difference (V) – energy transferred per unit charge; unit volt (V). Also called voltage.
电势差（V）– 每单位电荷转移的能量；单位伏特（V）。又称电压。
Resistance (R) – a measure of how much a component opposes the flow of current; unit ohm (Ω). Ohm’s law: V = I R.
电阻（R）– 衡量元件对电流阻碍程度的量；单位欧姆（Ω）。欧姆定律：V = I R。
7. Biological Molecules | 生物分子
Monomer – a small, repeating unit that can bond to form a polymer. Example: amino acids are monomers of proteins.
单体 – 可重复键合形成聚合物的小分子单元。例如：氨基酸是蛋白质的单体。
Polymer – a large molecule made up of many repeating monomer units joined together. Example: starch is a glucose polymer.
聚合物 – 由许多重复单体单元连接而成的大分子。例如：淀粉是葡萄糖的聚合物。
Carbohydrate – an organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, often with the general formula Cₓ(H₂O)ᵧ. Sugars are simple carbohydrates.
碳水化合物 – 含碳、氢、氧的有机化合物，通常通式为 Cₓ(H₂O)ᵧ。糖是简单碳水化合物。
Lipid – a group of hydrophobic molecules including fats and oils, made of glycerol and fatty acids. Triglycerides store energy.
脂质 – 一组疏水分子，包括脂肪和油，由甘油和脂肪酸构成。甘油三酯储存能量。
Active site – the specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction is catalysed. The shape is complementary to the substrate.
活性部位 – 酶上特定的区域，底物在此结合并催化反应。其形状与底物互补。
Denaturation – the permanent change in the shape of a protein (enzyme) caused by high temperature or extreme pH, leading to loss of function.
变性 – 由高温或极端 pH 引起的蛋白质（酶）形状的永久性改变，导致功能丧失。
8. Root Words and Mnemonics | 词根与速记法
Hypo- (below, under): hypotonic solution – a solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell. The cell swells as water enters. Hyper- (above, over): hypertonic – higher solute concentration; cell shrinks. Iso- (equal): isotonic – no net water movement.
Hypo-（低于、下）：低渗溶液 – 溶质浓度低于细胞的溶液。细胞吸水膨胀。Hyper-（高于、上）：高渗 – 溶质浓度更高；细胞收缩。Iso-（相等）：等渗 – 没有净水移动。
Mono- (one) vs Poly- (many): monounsaturated fatty acid has one double bond; polyunsaturated has many. Monomer is one unit; polymer is many units.
Mono-（单）与 Poly-（多）：单不饱和脂肪酸有一个双键；多不饱和脂肪酸有多个双键。单体是一个单元；聚合物是多个单元。
Photo- (light): photosynthesis uses light to make food. Thermo- (heat): exothermic reaction gives out heat. Endo- (inside): endocytosis – taking material into the cell.
Photo-（光）：光合作用利用光制造食物。Thermo-（热）：放热反应释放热量。Endo-（内部）：胞吞作用 – 将物质摄入细胞。
Mnemonics: Remember the order of reactivity for metals with “Please Stop Calling Me A Careless Zebra, Instead Try Learning How Copper Saves Gold” (Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, Carbon, Zinc, Iron, Tin, Lead, Hydrogen, Copper, Silver, Gold).
记忆法：金属活动性顺序可用口诀“钾钠钙镁铝，碳锌铁锡铅氢铜汞银铂金”来记。或英文首字母联想法。
9. Commonly Confused Terms | 易混术语辨析
Mass (kg) is a measure of the amount of matter; it is a scalar and does not change with location. Weight (N) is the force of gravity on a mass: W = m g. Weight varies with gravitational field strength.
质量（kg）衡量物质的多少；是标量，不随位置改变。重量（N）是作用在质量上的重力：W = m g。重量随重力场强度变化。
Heat is energy transferred due to temperature difference. Temperature (K or °C) is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. An object does not “contain heat”; it contains internal energy.
热是由于温差而转移的能量。温度（K 或 °C）是粒子平均动能的量度。物体不“含有热量”；它含有内能。
Speed (scalar) is how fast something moves. Velocity (vector) is speed in a given direction. In AQA questions, if you say “speed” when “velocity” is required, you may lose a mark.
速率（标量）是物体移动的快慢。速度（矢量）是给定方向上的速率。在 AQA 试题中，如果要求“速度”却写成“速率”，你会失分。
Molecular formula gives the actual number of each atom in a molecule (e.g., C₆H₁₂O₆ for glucose). Empirical formula gives the simplest ratio (e.g., CH₂O for glucose).
分子式给出分子中每种原子的实际数目（例如葡萄糖 C₆H₁₂O₆）。经验式给出最简比（例如葡萄糖 CH₂O）。
Precision vs accuracy: low systematic error gives high accuracy; low random error gives high precision. A dartboard analogy: accurate hits the bullseye; precise clusters tightly anywhere.
精确度与准确度：系统误差低则准确度高；随机误差低则精确度高。用飞镖靶类比：准确是命中靶心；精确是无论命中何处，都密集在一起。
10. Exam Command Words | 考试指令词
State – give a fact, definition, or value. No explanation needed. Write just the answer.
State（陈述） – 给出事实、定义或数值，无需解释。直接写出答案。
Describe – recall facts, events, or processes in a logical order. You may be asked to describe a trend on a graph – state what happens to the dependent variable as the independent variable changes, quoting data.
Describe（描述） – 按逻辑顺序复述事实、事件或过程。可能要求描述曲线趋势 – 陈述因变量如何随自变量变化，并引用数据。
Explain – give reasons for why something happens. Use scientific principles and link cause to effect. Phrases like “this is because…” are vital.
Explain（解释） – 说明某事发生的原因。运用科学原理，将因果联系起来。像“这是因为……”之类的短语至关重要。
Evaluate – weigh up evidence from both sides, identify strengths and limitations, and give a supported conclusion. In AQA practical questions, evaluate the method and suggest improvements.
Evaluate（评估） – 权衡正反两方面的证据，指出优点和局限性，并给出有支撑的结论。在 AQA 实验题中，评估方法并提出改进建议。
Calculate – work out a numerical answer, showing your working. Always include units and use significant figures appropriately. AQA expects you to use the correct formula and substitute values clearly.
Calculate（计算） – 得出数值答案，展示计算过程。务必写上单位并正确使用有效数字。AQA 期望你使用正确的公式并清晰地代入数值。
Suggest – apply your knowledge to a novel context. There may not be just one right answer; you need to propose a plausible scientific explanation or method.
Suggest（建议） – 将知识应用于新情境。可能没有唯一正确答案；你需要提出一个合理的科学解释或方法。
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