📚 Year 12 CCEA Psychology: Formula and Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 12 CCEA 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook gathers the essential formulae, statistical tests, theoretical models, and key concepts required for Year 12 CCEA Psychology. Each section pairs a concise English explanation with a Chinese translation, making revision efficient and exam-focused.
本速查手册汇集了 Year 12 CCEA 心理学必备的公式、统计检验、理论模型及核心概念。每个部分将简洁的英文解释与中文翻译配对，让复习更高效、更具应试针对性。
1. Descriptive Statistics Formulae | 描述性统计公式
Descriptive statistics summarise the central tendency and spread of data. The following are the core formulae used in research methods.
描述性统计概括数据的集中趋势与离散程度。以下为研究法中使用的核心公式。
Mean (Arithmetic Average) The sum of all scores divided by the number of scores. It is sensitive to outliers.
均值（算术平均数） 所有分数之和除以分数个数。它对异常值敏感。
M = Σx / n
Median The middle value when data are ordered. For an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two middle values.
中位数 数据排序后位于中间的值。当分数个数为偶数时，中位数为中间两个值的平均数。
Mode The most frequently occurring score in a data set. A set can have more than one mode or no mode at all.
众数 数据集中出现频率最高的分数。一组数据可有多个众数或没有众数。
Range A simple measure of spread: maximum value minus minimum value. It is easily affected by extreme scores.
极差（全距） 一种简单的离散量度：最大值减去最小值。极易受极端分数影响。
Range = X_max − X_min
Variance (s²) For a sample, it is the sum of squared deviations from the mean divided by n−1. It gives the average squared distance from the mean.
方差 (s²) 对样本而言，是各数据与均值之差的平方和除以 n−1。表示数据与均值距离平方的平均值。
s² = Σ(x − x̄)² / (n − 1)
Standard Deviation (s or SD) The square root of variance. It returns the spread to the original units, making it more interpretable.
标准差 (s 或 SD) 方差的算术平方根。将离散程度还原为原始单位，更易解读。
s = √[ Σ(x − x̄)² / (n − 1) ]
2. Inferential Statistical Tests | 推断统计检验
Inferential tests determine whether results are significant and not due to chance. Common tests in CCEA AS Psychology are listed below with their formulae and usage conditions.
推断检验用于判断结果是否显著、并非由偶然因素造成。以下列出CCEA AS心理学常见的检验及其公式和使用条件。
Independent t-test Compares two independent groups. Data must be at least interval/ratio, and variances should be homogeneous. The formula uses pooled variance (sp²).
独立t检验 比较两个独立组别。数据须为等距/比率水平，且方差应同质。公式使用合并方差 (sp²)。
t = (x̄₁ − x̄₂) / √[ sp² × (1/n₁ + 1/n₂) ]
Related t-test (Paired t-test) Used when the same participants are tested twice (repeated measures) or matched pairs. It evaluates the mean difference (D̄) against zero.
相关t检验（配对t检验） 用于同一组被试重复测量或配对组设计。检验差值平均数 (D̄) 是否与零有显著差异。
t = D̄ / (sD / √n)
Chi-square test for independence (χ²) Examines association between two categorical variables in a contingency table. Observed frequencies (O) are compared with expected frequencies (E).
卡方独立性检验 (χ²) 考察列联表中两个分类变量间的关联。将观察频数 (O) 与期望频数 (E) 进行比较。
χ² = Σ [ (O − E)² / E ]
Spearman’s Rho (rs) A non-parametric test for correlation using ranked data. It measures the strength and direction of a monotonic relationship. d = difference in ranks.
斯皮尔曼等级相关系数 (rs) 一种使用等级数据的非参数相关检验。衡量单调关系的强度与方向。d 为等级差。
rs = 1 − [ 6Σd² / (n(n² − 1)) ]
3. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) | 多存储记忆模型
The Multi-Store Model (MSM) proposes three separate memory stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves between stores via attention and rehearsal.
多存储模型(MSM)提出三个独立的记忆存储：感觉登记、短时记忆(STM)和长时记忆(LTM)。信息通过注意和复述在存储间转移。
Sensory Register: Capacity is very large; duration is milliseconds to a few seconds; coding is modality-specific (iconic, echoic). Attention transfers selected information to STM.
感觉登记： 容量极大；持续时间几毫秒到几秒；编码为特定感觉通道(图像、声像)。注意将选中的信息传入短时记忆。
Short-Term Memory: Limited capacity of 7±2 items (Miller’s magic number); duration of about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal; coding is primarily acoustic. Maintenance rehearsal keeps information active and can transfer it to LTM.
短时记忆： 容量有限，为7±2个组块(米勒神奇数字)；无复述时持续约18–30秒；编码主要为声学编码。保持性复述可使信息保持活跃并转入长时记忆。
Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity; duration potentially a lifetime; coding is largely semantic. Forgetting occurs due to decay, interference, or retrieval failure.
长时记忆： 容量无限；持续时间可长达终生；编码主要为语义编码。遗忘由消退、干扰或提取失败造成。
4. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch) | 工作记忆模型
The Working Memory Model (WMM) replaces the unitary STM with a multi-component system that actively processes and manipulates information.
工作记忆模型(WMM)用一个多成分系统取代了单一短时记忆，强调对信息的主动加工与操作。
Central Executive: The supervisory component that allocates attention, coordinates slave systems, and deals with cognitive tasks. It has limited capacity and does not store information.
中央执行系统： 监控成分，负责分配注意、协调附属系统并处理认知任务。容量有限，不存储信息。
Phonological Loop: Processes auditory and verbal information. It consists of the phonological store (inner ear) and an articulatory control process (inner voice) that rehearses sounds.
语音环路： 处理听觉与言语信息。包括语音存储（内耳）和发音控制过程（内部言语），用于复述声音。
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information. It allows us to manipulate visual images and navigate the environment. It has its own limited capacity.
视空间画板： 处理视觉与空间信息。使我们能操作视觉表象并在环境中导航。容量有限。
Episodic Buffer (added later): Integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and LTM into a single, time-ordered sequence. It links working memory to long-term memory and conscious awareness.
情景缓冲器（后添加）： 整合语音环路、视空间画板和长时记忆的信息，形成单一的时间序列。将工作记忆与长时记忆及意识觉知联结起来。
5. Forgetting: Interference Theory | 遗忘：干扰理论
Interference theory explains forgetting in LTM as a result of memories disrupting one another. Two main forms are assessed in Year 12 CCEA Psychology.
干扰理论认为长时记忆中的遗忘是由于记忆相互干扰所致。Year 12 CCEA心理学评估两种主要形式。
Proactive Interference (PI): Old learning disrupts the recall of new information. For example, you memorise List A, then List B; recall of List B is worse because List A interferes forward.
前摄干扰 (PI)： 旧的学习干扰新信息的回忆。例如，你先记忆列表A，再记忆列表B；回忆列表B时变差，因为列表A向前干扰。
Retroactive Interference (RI): New learning disrupts the recall of old information. If you learn List B and then try to recall List A, the newer material interferes backward.
倒摄干扰 (RI)： 新的学习干扰旧信息的回忆。若学习列表B后尝试回忆列表A，较新的材料向后干扰。
Key study: Underwood and Postman (1960) – paired-associate lists demonstrated both PI and RI. The more similar the materials, the greater the interference.
关键研究：Underwood与Postman (1960) 使用配对联想词表证明了前摄干扰与倒摄干扰。材料越相似，干扰越强。
6. Attachment Types: The Strange Situation | 依恋类型：陌生情境
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation assesses the quality of attachment between an infant and caregiver around 12–18 months. It leads to three main attachment types.
Ainsworth的陌生情境评估12–18个月婴儿与照护者之间的依恋质量。它得出三种主要依恋类型。
Secure Attachment (Type B): The infant explores when the caregiver is present, shows distress at separation, but is easily soothed upon reunion. The caregiver is a secure base.
安全型依恋 (B型)： 照护者在场时婴儿探索，分离时表现出痛苦，但重聚时容易得到安抚。照护者是安全基地。
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (Type A): The infant shows little distress at separation and avoids or ignores the caregiver upon reunion. Exploration is unaffected by the caregiver’s presence.
回避型依恋 (A型)： 婴儿在分离时几乎不痛苦，重聚时回避或忽略照护者。探索行为不受照护者在场影响。
Insecure-Resistant (Ambivalent) Attachment (Type C): The infant is very distressed at separation, but upon reunion, seeks contact yet resists it, often showing anger and passivity.
反抗型（矛盾型）依恋 (C型)： 婴儿在分离时极度痛苦，重聚时既寻求接触又抗拒，常表现出愤怒和被动。
Proportions in most samples: approximately 70% secure, 20% avoidant, 10% resistant.
多数样本的比例：约70%安全型，20%回避型，10%反抗型。
7. Learning Theory of Attachment (Dollard & Miller) | 依恋的学习理论
Learning theory, sometimes called ‘cupboard love’, explains attachment through classical and operant conditioning. The infant learns to associate the caregiver with pleasure and reduction of drive.
学习理论，有时称作“食物柜之爱”，通过经典条件作用和操作性条件作用解释依恋。婴儿学会将照护者与快乐及驱力降低联系起来。
Classical Conditioning: Food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS) produces pleasure (unconditioned response, UCR). The caregiver initially a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with food and eventually elicits pleasure as a conditioned response (CR), becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS).
经典条件作用： 食物（无条件刺激，UCS）引起愉悦（无条件反应，UCR）。照护者最初为中性刺激（NS），与食物建立联系后，最终成为条件刺激（CS），引发条件反应（愉悦）。
Operant Conditioning: The caregiver’s feeding reinforces the infant’s crying (negative reinforcement: removal of hunger). For the caregiver, the cessation of crying positively reinforces feeding. Mutual reinforcement strengthens the bond.
操作性条件作用： 照护者喂食强化了婴儿的哭泣（负强化：消除饥饿）。对照护者而言，哭声停止正向强化了喂养行为。双向强化巩固了依恋。
Drive Reduction: Hunger is a primary drive; food reduces it. Attachment is a secondary drive learned through the association with drive reduction, making the caregiver a source of comfort.
驱力降低： 饥饿为首要驱力，食物使之降低。依恋是学会的次级驱力，通过与驱力降低相关而建立，使照护者成为安慰来源。
8. Conformity and Obedience: Core Studies and Factors | 顺从与服从：核心研究与影响因素
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief to match group norms. Obedience is following direct commands from an authority figure. Both are fundamental in social psychology.
顺从指改变行为或信念以符合群体规范。服从指遵循权威人物的直接命令。两者均是社会心理学基础内容。
Asch’s Conformity Study: Participants judged line lengths in a group of confederates who unanimously gave wrong answers. About 75% conformed at least once; average conformity rate was 37%. Factors increasing conformity: group size up to 3–5, unanimity, task difficulty, and low self-esteem.
Asch的顺从研究： 被试在同谋小组中判断线段长度，同谋一致给出错误答案。约75%的被试至少顺从一次；平均顺从率为37%。提升顺从的因素：组规模3–5人、一致性、任务难度和低自尊。
Milgram’s Obedience Study: Participants believed they were administering electric shocks to a ‘learner’. 65% administered the maximum 450V shock. Factors affecting obedience: proximity of the authority, legitimacy of the institution, proximity of the victim, and social support from disobedient peers.
Milgram的服从研究： 被试自认为对“学习者”施加电击。65%的被试施加了最高450伏电击。影响服从的因素：权威接近度、机构合法性、受害者接近度以及来自不服从同伴的社会支持。
9. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner) | 社会认同理论
Social Identity Theory (SIT) explains how individuals develop a self-concept based on group membership, leading to intergroup discrimination and in-group favouritism.
社会认同理论(SIT)解释个体如何基于群体成员身份发展自我概念，从而导致群际歧视与内群偏好。
Social Categorisation: People categorise themselves and others into ingroups (‘us’) and outgroups (‘them’). This cognitive shortcut simplifies the social world.
社会分类： 人们将自己与他人归类为内群(“我们”)和外群(“他们”)。这种认知捷径简化了社会世界。
Social Identification: Individuals adopt the identity of their ingroup, linking their self-esteem to the group’s status and norms. Emotional significance is attached to membership.
社会认同： 个体接纳内群的身份，将自尊与群体地位和规范联系起来。群体成员身份被赋予情感意义。
Social Comparison: To enhance self-esteem, people compare their ingroup favourably with outgroups. This can lead to in-group favouritism and negative out-group bias, even when groups are minimal or arbitrarily formed (Tajfel et al., 1971).
社会比较： 为提升自尊，人们将内群与外群进行有利于内群的比较。即使群体是极简或随意划分的(Tajfel等，1971)，这也可能导致内群偏好与外群负性偏见。
10. Biopsychology: Synaptic Transmission | 生物心理学：突触传递
Neurons communicate via synapses using neurotransmitters. This process underpins all psychological functions and is a core topic in Year 12 CCEA Psychology.
神经元通过突触使用神经递质进行沟通。这一过程构成所有心理功能的基础，是CCEA Year 12心理学核心课题。
Action Potential: When a neuron fires, an electrical impulse travels down the axon. At the presynaptic terminal, vesicles fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
动作电位： 神经元发放时，电冲动沿轴突传导。在突触前末梢，囊泡与细胞膜融合，将神经递质释放到突触间隙。
Receptor Binding: Neurotransmitters cross the cleft and bind to specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane
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