📚 Year 12 SQA Philosophy: Key Terms Memorisation Guide | SQA 哲学 12 年级关键术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is essential for success in SQA Higher Philosophy. This guide presents high-yield key terms with clear definitions, contextual examples, and memory hooks, drawing on etymology, vivid imagery, and conceptual contrast. Use it alongside your regular revision, and revisit the definitions aloud to cement them in long-term memory.
掌握哲学术语是 SQA 高级哲学考试成功的基础。本指南精选高频关键术语，提供清晰的定义、语境例证与记忆钩子，借助词源、生动意象和概念对比，帮助你将术语内化为永久记忆。请配合日常复习使用，并出声复诵定义，以巩固长期记忆。
1. Core Logical Terms: Validity, Soundness, Deduction & Induction | 核心逻辑术语：有效性、可靠性、演绎与归纳
Validity: In deductive reasoning, an argument is valid if if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true; validity is purely about logical form, not actual truth. Memory hook: think of ‘valid’ as ‘the structure holds water’.
有效性：在演绎推理中，如果一个论证满足“如果前提为真则结论必然为真”，它就是有效的；有效性只关乎逻辑形式，与实际真假无关。记忆钩子：把“有效”想成“结构不漏水”。
Soundness: A deductive argument is sound if it is both valid and all its premises are actually true. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion. Memory hook: ‘Sound = Valid + True premises’ (like a musical chord where all notes ring true).
可靠性（健全性）：一个演绎论证如果既有效，其所有前提又为真，那么它就是可靠的。可靠的论证能保证结论为真。记忆钩子：“可靠 = 有效 + 真前提”（就像和弦里每个音都准确）。
Deductive argument: Reasoning from general premises to a particular conclusion that is claimed to follow necessarily. Standard form: P1, P2, therefore C. Think ‘Deduction draws down’ certainty.
演绎论证：从一般性前提推出一个被认为是必然得出的特定结论。标准形式：前提1、前提2，因此结论。试想“演绎向下导出”确定性。
Inductive argument: Reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion that is probable, not guaranteed. Memory hook: ‘Induction inches upward’ from instances to a likely pattern.
归纳论证：从具体观察推出一般性结论，结论具有概然性而非必然性。记忆钩子：“归纳从个例逐步上升”到可能的模式。
2. A Priori & A Posteriori Knowledge | 先天知识与后天知识
A priori knowledge: Knowledge justified independently of sensory experience, e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Latin for ‘from the earlier’. Think: you can know it ‘prior’ to looking at the world.
先天知识：其辩护不依赖于感官经验的知识，如“所有单身汉都是未婚的”。拉丁语意为“从在先者”。试想：你在观察世界“之前”就能知道它。
A posteriori knowledge: Knowledge justified by sense experience, e.g. ‘It is raining outside’. Latin for ‘from the latter’. Memory hook: you need to check after the fact (‘post’ experience).
后天知识：通过感官经验得以辩护的知识，如“外面正在下雨”。拉丁语意为“从在后者”。记忆钩子：你需要在事实发生“之后”去查证。
3. Analytic & Synthetic; Necessary & Contingent | 分析与综合；必然与偶然
Analytic statement: A proposition true solely by virtue of the meanings of its words; the predicate is ‘contained’ in the subject. Example: ‘Triangles have three sides.’ Memory: ‘Analyse’ the subject and you already have the predicate.
分析陈述：仅凭语词意义即为真的命题；谓语已“包含”在主语中。例如：“三角形有三条边”。记忆：你“分析”主语就能得到谓语。
Synthetic statement: A proposition whose truth-value depends on how the world is, not just on definitions. Example: ‘The cat is on the mat.’ Memory hook: you must ‘synthesise’ the claim with experience to check it.
综合陈述：真值取决于世界状况而不只是定义的命题。例如：“猫在垫子上”。记忆钩子：你必须将主张与经验“综合”起来才能核实。
Necessary truth: A proposition true in all possible worlds; it could not have been false. Example: ‘2 + 2 = 4’. Think ‘No escape — it must be so’.
必然真理：在所有可能世界都为真的命题；它不可能为假。例如：“2 + 2 = 4”。试想“无处可逃——必然如此”。
Contingent truth: A proposition true in the actual world but false in at least one possible world. Example: ‘Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.’ Memory hook: it ‘depends on circumstances’ — things could have been otherwise.
偶然真理：在现实世界为真，但在至少一个可能世界为假的命题。例如：“爱丁堡是苏格兰的首都”。记忆钩子：它“取决于境况”——事情本可不同。
4. Rationalism & Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism: The view that reason, rather than sense experience, is the primary source of knowledge, and that we possess innate ideas. Key figures: Descartes, Leibniz. Memory: ‘Ratio’ (Latin: reason) is built in.
理性主义：认为理性而非感官经验是知识的主要来源，且我们拥有天赋观念的观点。代表人物：笛卡尔、莱布尼茨。记忆：词根“ratio”（理性）与生俱来。
Innate ideas: Concepts or knowledge present in the mind from birth, not derived from experience. Descartes held that the idea of God and mathematical truths are innate.
天赋观念：心灵中与生俱来、不来自经验的概念或知识。笛卡尔认为上帝观念和数学真理是天赋的。
Empiricism: The thesis that all knowledge ultimately comes from sense experience; the mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate). Key figures: Locke, Hume. Memory hook: ‘Empirical = experienced’.
经验主义：认为所有知识最终都源自感官经验；心灵出生时是“白板”的论题。代表人物：洛克、休谟。记忆钩子：经验（empirical）就是体验过的。
Tabula rasa: A Latin phrase meaning ‘scraped tablet’ or blank slate; Locke used it to deny innate ideas, claiming the mind is filled through experience.
白板说：拉丁语意为“刮平的书写板”；洛克用它来否认天赋观念，主张心灵通过经验被填充。
5. Scepticism & Solipsism | 怀疑论与唯我论
Global scepticism: The radical position that we can know nothing at all, even that an external world exists. Memory hook: a giant question mark swallowing all beliefs.
全面怀疑论：极端的立场，认为我们什么也不能知道，甚至无从知道外部世界存在。记忆钩子：一个巨大的问号吞没了所有信念。
Methodological doubt (Cartesian doubt): Descartes’ strategy of systematically doubting all beliefs until reaching something indubitable, e.g. the cogito. This is doubt as a tool, not a final position.
方法论的怀疑（笛卡尔式怀疑）：笛卡尔的策略，通过系统性地怀疑所有信念，直至达到不可怀疑之物，如“我思故我在”。这是作为工具的怀疑，而非最终立场。
Solipsism: The doctrine that only one’s own mind is sure to exist; the external world and other minds may be illusions. From Latin solus ipse (‘alone self’). Memory: ‘solo self’ — you alone are real.
唯我论：认为唯有自己的心灵是确定存在的学说；外部世界和他心可能只是幻觉。源自拉丁语solus ipse（“单独的自身”）。记忆：“solo自我”——唯有你是真实的。
6. The Tripartite Definition of Knowledge | 知识的三要素定义
Justified True Belief (JTB): A subject S knows that P if and only if (i) P is true, (ii) S believes that P, and (iii) S is justified in believing that P. Memory: the ‘three-legged stool’ — remove one leg and knowledge collapses.
得到辩护的真信念（JTB）：主体 S 知道命题 P，当且仅当 (i) P 为真，(ii) S 相信 P，且 (iii) S 有正当理由相信 P。记忆：“三脚凳”——缺一条腿，知识就塌了。
Gettier problem: Cases where someone has a justified true belief yet intuitively does not have knowledge, challenging the sufficiency of JTB. Example: stopped clock case. Memory hook: ‘Gettier cases show luck is not knowledge’.
盖梯尔问题：一些例子中某人拥有得到辩护的真信念，但直觉上却不算拥有知识，这挑战了 JTB 的充分性。例如停摆的钟表案例。记忆钩子：“盖梯尔案例表明侥幸不是知识”。
7. Utilitarianism: Key Terms | 功利主义关键术语
Utility principle (Greatest Happiness Principle): Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they produce the reverse. ‘Utility’ means usefulness in producing pleasure and preventing pain.
功利原则（最大幸福原则）：行为的正确程度与它们促进幸福的比例成正比，错误程度与它们产生痛苦的比例成正比。“功利”指产生快乐、预防痛苦的有用性。
Hedonic calculus (Bentham): A method of measuring the pleasure produced by an action using criteria such as intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. Memory: think ‘happiness calculator’.
苦乐计算法（边沁）：通过强度、持续时间、确定性、远近、继生性、纯度和范围等标准来测量行为所产生快乐的方法。记忆提示：“幸福计算器”。
Higher and lower pleasures (Mill): Mill argued that intellectual pleasures (e.g. reading poetry) are qualitatively superior to bodily pleasures (e.g. eating). ‘It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.’
高级快乐与低级快乐（密尔）：密尔主张理智的快乐（如读诗）在质上优于肉体快乐（如进食）。“宁愿做一个不满足的人，也不做一只满足的猪。”
Act vs rule utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism judges each individual action by the utility principle; rule utilitarianism judges a rule which, if generally followed, would maximise utility. Memory: act = case-by-case; rule = adopting the best set of traffic lights.
行为功利主义与规则功利主义：行为功利主义用功利原则评判每个具体行为；规则功利主义评判一条规则，如果普遍遵守会最大化工利。记忆：行为=个案处理；规则=采用最好的一套交通灯。
8. Kantian Deontology: Key Terms | 康德道义论关键术语
Categorical imperative: An unconditional moral command that holds regardless of our desires, e.g. ‘Do not lie.’ Contrast with hypothetical imperative. Memory: ‘Categorical = absolutely binding, no ifs.’
绝对命令：不论我们的欲望如何都有效的无条件道德命令，如“不要撒谎”。与之相对的是假言命令。记忆：“绝对=绝对有约束力，没有假如”。
First formulation: Universal law: ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ Test your action’s maxim; if it leads to a contradiction in conception or in will, it is impermissible.
第一公式：普遍法则：“只按照你同时能够愿意它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动。”检验你的行为准则；若导致观念上的矛盾或意志上的矛盾，则不被允许。
Second formulation: Humanity as an end: ‘Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.’ People have intrinsic worth, not just instrumental value.
第二公式：人是目的：“你要如此行动，即无论对你自身中的人性，还是对他人中的人性，总是同时当作目的，绝不仅仅当作手段。”人具有内在价值，而不仅仅是工具价值。
Good will: The only thing good without qualification; it is the will to do one’s duty purely out of respect for the moral law, not out of inclination. Memory: ‘Good will is the moral compass that shines even when outcomes are bad.’
善良意志：唯一无条件的善；它是纯粹出于对道德法则的敬重而履行义务的意志，而非出于爱好。记忆：“善良意志是道德罗盘，即使结果糟糕也依然闪亮。”
Hypothetical imperative: A conditional command that depends on one’s desires or goals, e.g. ‘If you want to be healthy, exercise regularly.’ Memory: ‘Hypothetical = hypothesis-based: if… then…’.
假言命令：依赖于个人欲望或目标的条件式命令，如“如果你想保持健康，就规律锻炼”。记忆：“假言=基于假设的：如果……那么……”。
9. Virtue Ethics: Key Terms | 德性伦理学关键术语
Eudaimonia: Often translated as ‘flourishing’ or ‘living well’; it is the final end for human beings in Aristotle’s ethics, achieved by living a life of rational activity in accordance with virtue. Memory: ‘your daimon (inner spirit) is well — you are thriving.’
幸福（Eudaimonia）：常被译为“繁荣”或“活得好”；在亚里士多德伦理学中是人类的终极目的，通过按德性进行理性活动的生活得以实现。记忆：“你的内在精神（daimon）状态良好——你正焕发生机。”
Doctrine of the Mean (Golden Mean): Virtue is a disposition to choose the intermediate between excess and deficiency relative to us, as determined by practical wisdom. Example: courage is the mean between cowardice and rashness.
中道学说（黄金中道）：德性是一种选择相对于我们而言过度与不足之间的中间状态的品质，由实践智慧决定。例如：勇敢是怯懦与鲁莽的中道。
Phronesis (practical wisdom): The intellectual virtue that enables an agent to determine the right course of action in specific circumstances; it is not merely knowing rules, but perceptively judging what the situation requires.
实践智慧（Phronesis）：使行动者能够在特定情境中判明正确行动路线的理智德性；它不仅仅是懂得规则，而是能敏锐判断情境所需。
Moral exemplar / virtuous agent: A person who possesses and reliably exercises the virtues; for Aristotle, we learn virtue by imitating the phronimos (the practically wise person). Memory: think of a moral role model.
道德典范/有德者：拥有并稳定地运用德性的人；亚里士多德认为，我们通过模仿明智者来学习德性。记忆：想到一个道德榜样。
10. Mind-Body Dualism & Materialism | 身心二元论与唯物主义
Substance dualism (Descartes): The view that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct substances: the mind is a non-extended, thinking thing, while the body is an extended, non-thinking thing. Memory: ‘Two separate substances — a ghost in a machine.’
实体二元
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