📚 Year 13 CCEA Economics: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | Year 13 CCEA 经济词汇术语速记指南
Mastering economics at Year 13 goes beyond understanding graphs; it demands precision with language. This guide is designed to help CCEA students quickly anchor the most important A2 micro and macro terms in memory. Each entry uses paired English and Chinese explanations, practical memory hooks, and clear examples to make revision more efficient.
学好 Year 13 经济学，光看懂图表远远不够，精准掌握术语才是得分关键。这份速记指南专门为 CCEA 考生梳理了 A2 微观和宏观最核心的词汇，通过英中配对解释、实用的记忆锚点和清晰示例，让你的复习事半功倍。
1. Market Structures: From Perfect Competition to Monopoly | 市场结构：从完全竞争到垄断
Perfect Competition: A theoretical market with many firms, identical goods, zero barriers to entry/exit, and perfect knowledge. All firms are price takers. In the long run, only normal profit (zero economic profit) is possible.
完全竞争：一种理论上的市场结构，存在大量企业、同质产品、无进出壁垒和完全信息。所有企业都是价格接受者。从长期看，只能获得正常利润（经济利润为零）。
Monopolistic Competition: Many firms selling slightly differentiated products, low barriers to entry. Firms have some price-setting power but face a downward-sloping demand curve. In the long run, they earn normal profit but operate with excess capacity.
垄断竞争：许多企业销售略有差异的产品，进入壁垒较低。企业有一定的定价权，但面临向下倾斜的需求曲线。长期中只能赚取正常利润，且存在过剩生产能力。
Oligopoly: A market dominated by a few large firms, high barriers to entry, and interdependent decision-making. Firms may engage in non-price competition and collusion. Key models include kinked demand curve and game theory (prisoner’s dilemma).
寡头垄断：由少数大企业主导的市场，进入壁垒高，决策相互依赖。企业可能进行非价格竞争和合谋。关键模型包括弯折的需求曲线和博弈论中的囚徒困境。
Monopoly: A single firm controls the entire market, with very high barriers blocking entry. The monopolist is a price maker and can earn supernormal profits in the long run. It may cause allocative and productive inefficiency.
垄断：一家企业控制整个市场，进入壁垒极高。垄断者是价格制定者，能在长期赚取超额利润。可能造成配置无效和生产无效。
Memory Hook: Think of market structures as a spectrum – Perfect Competition (powerless) → Oligopoly (strategic) → Monopoly (dominant).
记忆技巧：把市场结构看作一个光谱——完全竞争（无权）→ 寡头（战略博弈）→ 垄断（主导地位）。
2. Contestable Markets & Efficiency | 可竞争市场与效率
Contestable Market: A market where entry and exit are completely free and costless. Even with few firms, the threat of hit-and-run entry forces them to set prices close to average cost, limiting supernormal profits.
可竞争市场：进入和退出完全自由且无成本的市场。即使企业数量少，潜在进入者的 “打了就跑” 威胁也会迫使企业将价格定在接近平均成本的水平，从而限制超额利润。
Sunk Costs: Costs that cannot be recovered once a firm leaves the market, such as specialist machinery or advertising. High sunk costs act as a barrier to entry and reduce contestability.
沉没成本：企业退出市场时无法收回的成本，如专用机器或广告支出。高沉没成本构成进入壁垒，降低市场可竞争性。
X-inefficiency: The tendency for a firm with little competitive pressure to let costs drift above the minimum possible level. Common in monopolies where managers lack incentives to minimise costs.
X无效：企业因竞争压力小而让成本高出最低可能水平的趋势。常见于垄断企业，管理层缺乏最小化成本的激励。
Dynamic Efficiency: Efficiency achieved through investment in new technology and innovation over time. Oligopolists using supernormal profits for R&D often demonstrate dynamic efficiency.
动态效率：通过长期投资新技术和创新实现的效率。寡头企业往往会利用超额利润进行研发，从而体现动态效率。
3. Cost, Revenue & Profit Maximisation | 成本、收益与利润最大化
Short-run Cost Curves: Total Cost (TC) = Total Fixed Cost (TFC) + Total Variable Cost (TVC). Average Cost (AC) = TC ÷ Q. Marginal Cost (MC) is the extra cost of producing one more unit – it cuts AC at its lowest point.
短期成本曲线：总成本(TC) = 总固定成本(TFC) + 总可变成本(TVC)。平均成本(AC) = TC ÷ Q。边际成本(MC)是多生产一单位产品所增加的成本，曲线穿过平均成本的最低点。
Revenue Concepts: Total Revenue (TR) = Price × Quantity. Average Revenue (AR) = TR ÷ Q, which is also the demand curve. Marginal Revenue (MR) is the addition to TR from selling one more unit. For a price maker, MR lies below AR.
收益概念：总收益(TR) = 价格 × 数量。平均收益(AR) = TR ÷ Q，也就是需求曲线。边际收益(MR)是多销售一单位产品带来的总收益增量。对价格制定者而言，MR曲线位于AR曲线下方。
Profit Maximisation Rule: MR = MC
利润最大化条件：MR = MC
Normal vs Supernormal Profit: Normal profit is the minimum return needed to keep resources in their current use (covered by AC). Supernormal (abnormal) profit is any profit above normal profit, shown when AR > AC.
正常利润与超额利润：正常利润是维持资源现有用途所需的最低回报（已计入AC）。超额利润是超过正常利润的部分，表现为AR > AC。
4. Business Growth & Integration | 企业增长与整合
Horizontal Integration: Merger or takeover between firms at the same stage of production in the same industry. It increases market share, exploits economies of scale, but may raise competition concerns.
横向整合：处于同一行业、同一生产阶段的企业之间的合并或收购。可提高市场份额、利用规模经济，但可能引发竞争担忧。
Vertical Integration: Merging with a firm at a different stage of the production chain. Backward vertical integration involves taking over a supplier; forward involves taking over a distributor. It secures supply chains and cuts intermediate costs.
纵向整合：与生产链上不同阶段的企业合并。后向纵向整合指收购供应商，前向纵向整合指收购分销商。能保障供应链并降低中间成本。
Conglomerate Integration: Merger between firms in completely unrelated markets. It diversifies risk and allows for sharing of managerial expertise, but can lead to a lack of focus.
混合整合（集团化）：处于完全不相关市场的企业合并。可分散风险、共享管理专长，但可能导致缺乏聚焦。
Organic Growth: Internal expansion through increased output, new product development, or investment in capacity. Slower but less risky than integration.
有机增长：通过增加产出、开发新产品或投资产能实现的内部扩张。速度较慢，但风险低于并购整合。
5. Labour Market & Wage Determination | 劳动力市场与工资决定
Derived Demand for Labour: The demand for labour is derived from the demand for the goods and services it produces. If consumer demand for a product rises, demand for workers in that industry tends to rise.
劳动力的派生需求：劳动力需求源自对其所生产产品和服务的需求。如果消费者对某种产品的需求上升，该行业对工人的需求通常也会上升。
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP): The extra revenue generated by employing one more worker. MRP = Marginal Physical Product (MPP) × Marginal Revenue (MR). A profit-maximising firm hires up to the point where MRP = wage rate.
边际收益产品(MRP)：多雇佣一名工人所带来的额外收益。MRP = 边际实物产量(MPP) × 边际收益(MR)。利润最大化企业会一直雇佣到MRP = 工资率那一点。
Wage Determination Condition: MRP = MC of labour (wage)
工资决定条件：MRP = 劳动力边际成本（工资）
Elasticity of Labour Supply: Measures how responsive the quantity of labour supplied is to a change in the wage rate. Factors include occupation-specific skills, time period, and the geographical/occupational mobility of workers.
劳动力供给弹性：衡量劳动力供给量对工资率变化的反应程度。影响因素包括职业技能要求、时间长短以及工人的地理和职业流动性。
Trade Union & Monopsony: A trade union can push wages above equilibrium by restricting supply or collective bargaining. A monopsony employer (single dominant buyer of labour) can pay wages below MRP. The outcome depends on relative bargaining power.
工会与买方垄断：工会可以通过限制供给或集体谈判将工资推高到均衡水平之上。买方垄断雇主（唯一主导的劳动购买者）则可能支付低于MRP的工资。最终结果取决于双方的谈判力量。
6. Macroeconomic Objectives & Indicators | 宏观经济目标与指标
Inflation Measurement: Consumer Price Index (CPI) tracks the change in the price of a fixed basket of goods and services. The inflation rate is the annual percentage change. CCEA also expects understanding of Retail Price Index (RPI) and CPIH.
通胀衡量：消费者价格指数(CPI)追踪一篮子固定商品和服务的价格变动。通胀率即年度百分比变化。CCEA还要求了解零售价格指数(RPI)和包含住房成本的CPIH。
Unemployment Rate: The percentage of the economically active population who are without work but available and actively seeking employment. The claimant count measures those receiving job-related benefits; the Labour Force Survey follows ILO definitions.
失业率：经济活动人口中无工作但可以工作并积极寻找工作的人口百分比。申领人数统计领取失业救济金的人；劳动力调查则遵循国际劳工组织定义。
Economic Growth: Measured by the percentage change in real GDP (gross domestic product adjusted for inflation). Short-run growth comes from increased use of capacity; long-run growth requires an outward shift in the productive potential (PPF/LRAS).
经济增长：以实际GDP（剔除通胀的国内生产总值）的百分比变化来衡量。短期增长源于现有产能利用率的提高；长期增长则需要生产潜力(PPF/LRAS)向外移动。
Balance of Payments: A record of all financial transactions between a country and the rest of the world. The current account includes trade in goods, services, primary income, and secondary transfers. A deficit must be matched by a surplus on the financial/capital account.
国际收支：记录一国与世界其他地方所有金融交易的账户。经常账户包括货物贸易、服务贸易、初次收入和二次转移。经常账户赤字必须由金融/资本账户盈余来平衡。
7. Aggregate Demand & Aggregate Supply | 总需求与总供给
Aggregate Demand (AD): AD = C + I + G + (X – M). Consumer spending, business investment, government spending, and net exports. A fall in any component shifts the AD curve left, potentially causing a recession.
总需求(AD)：AD = C + I + G + (X – M)，即消费支出、企业投资、政府支出和净出口。任何组成部分下降都会导致AD曲线左移，可能引发衰退。
Multiplier Effect: An initial injection into the circular flow leads to a larger final increase in national income. The size of the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to withdraw (savings, tax, imports). Formula: k = 1 / (1 – MPC) or 1 / MPW.
乘数效应：流入循环流动的初始注入会导致国民收入更大幅度的最终增加。乘数大小取决于边际漏出倾向（储蓄、税收、进口）。公式：k = 1 / (1 – MPC) 或 1 / MPW。
Short-run Aggregate Supply (SRAS): The total output firms are willing to supply at a given price level, assuming at least one fixed factor. It slopes upward because higher prices can increase profit margins, encouraging firms to expand output.
短期总供给(SRAS)：在至少一种生产要素固定不变的假设下，企业愿意在给定价格水平下提供的总产出。曲线向上倾斜，因为价格上涨可提高利润率，激励企业扩大产量。
Long-run Aggregate Supply (LRAS): Represents the full-employment level of output, determined by the quantity and quality of factors of production. Classical LRAS is vertical at the natural rate of output; Keynesian LRAS has a perfectly elastic section at low output levels.
长期总供给(LRAS)：代表充分就业下的产出水平，由生产要素的数量和质量决定。古典学派的LRAS在自然产出率处垂直；凯恩斯学派LRAS在低产出水平时具有完全弹性段。
8. Fiscal, Monetary & Supply-Side Policies | 财政、货币与供给侧政策
Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher G, lower taxes) boosts AD; contractionary policy reduces AD. Automatic stabilisers (e.g. progressive tax, benefits) work without policy change.
财政政策：利用政府支出和税收影响经济。扩张性财政政策（增加G、减税）刺激总需求；紧缩性财政政策抑制总需求。自动稳定器（如累进税、福利金）无需政策变动即可发挥作用。
Monetary Policy & Interest Rates: Central banks adjust the base interest rate to control inflation and support growth. Lower rates reduce the cost of borrowing, encouraging C and I, thus shifting AD right. Quantitative easing (QE) involves creating money to buy assets when rates are near zero.
货币政策与利率：央行调整基准利率以控制通胀和支持增长。降息降低借贷成本，刺激消费C和投资I，使AD曲线右移。量化宽松(QE)是在利率接近零时通过创造货币购买资产。
Liquidity Trap: A situation where low interest rates fail to stimulate borrowing and AD because confidence is so weak. In a liquidity trap, monetary policy becomes ineffective and fiscal policy is often preferred.
流动性陷阱：当信心极度疲弱时，低利率无法刺激借贷和总需求的情况。在流动性陷阱中，货币政策失效，通常更偏好使用财政政策。
Supply-Side Policies: Measures designed to increase productive potential by improving efficiency and productivity. Examples include investment in education/training, tax reforms, privatisation, and reducing regulation. They aim to shift LRAS right, helping non-inflationary growth.
供给侧政策：旨在通过提高效率和生产率来增加生产潜能的措施。例如教育和培训投资、税制改革、私有化和放松管制。目标是使LRAS曲线右移，促进无通胀增长。
9. International Trade, Protectionism & Exchange Rates | 国际贸易、保护主义与汇率
Comparative Advantage: A country has a comparative advantage when it can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country. This principle underpins the gains from trade, even when one country has an absolute advantage in all goods.
比较优势：当一个国家能以比另一国更低的机会成本生产某种商品时，就具有比较优势。即使一国在所有商品上都具有绝对优势，比较优势原理仍是贸易收益的基础。
Protectionism: Policies that restrict free trade, such as tariffs, quotas, subsidies to domestic producers, and non-tariff barriers. Protectionism can safeguard domestic jobs and infant industries but leads to higher consumer prices and potential retaliation.
保护主义：限制自由贸易的政策，如关税、配额、对国内生产者的补贴和非关税壁垒。保护主义可以保障国内就业和幼稚产业，但会导致消费者价格上升和可能的报复行为。
Exchange Rate Systems: A floating exchange rate is determined by market forces (demand and supply of currency). A fixed exchange rate is pegged by the central bank. Managed floating involves periodic intervention. Appreciation makes exports dearer; depreciation makes exports cheaper.
汇率制度：浮动汇率由市场力量（货币供求）决定。固定汇率由央行盯住。管理浮动汇率则涉及周期性干预。升值使出口变贵，贬值使出口变便宜。
J-Curve Effect: After a currency depreciation, the trade deficit may worsen initially before improving. In the short run, import prices rise and contracts are fixed; over time, volumes adjust, leading to an improved current account.
J曲线效应：货币贬值后，贸易赤字可能先恶化再改善。短期中进口价格上涨且合同已锁定；随时间推移数量调整，经常账户最终改善。
10. Development Economics & Globalisation | 发展经济学与全球化
Human Development Index (HDI): A composite indicator measuring a country’s average achievement in three basic dimensions: health (life expectancy at birth), education (mean years of schooling), and standard of living (GNI per capita, PPP). It moves beyond GDP to capture well-being.
人类发展指数(HDI)：衡量一国在三个基本维度平均成就的综合指标：健康（预期寿命）、教育（平均受教育年限）和生活水平（人均GNI，购买力平价）。它超越GDP，更好地衡量福祉。
Gini Coefficient: A measure of income inequality ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality). A rising Gini coefficient suggests an increasingly unequal distribution of income.
基尼系数：衡量收入不平等程度的指标，范围从0（完全平等）到1（完全不平等）。基尼系数上升表示收入分配越来越不均。
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