📚 Cambridge AS Psychology: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | 剑桥AS心理学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering key terminology is essential for success in Cambridge AS Psychology. This guide provides concise definitions of must-know terms across all core topics, along with memory aids to help you recall them quickly in exams and essay responses.
掌握关键术语对于剑桥AS心理学考试至关重要。本指南涵盖了所有核心主题中必须掌握的术语的简明定义，并配有记忆辅助，帮助你在考试和论文回答中快速回忆。
1. Research Methods Terminology | 研究方法术语速记
Independent Variable (IV): The factor that the researcher deliberately manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
自变量（IV）：研究者有意操纵或改变的变量，以观察其对因变量的影响。速记：IV = I change（我改变的变量）。
Dependent Variable (DV): The factor that is measured by the researcher. It is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the IV.
因变量（DV）：被测量的变量，其变化取决于自变量的操纵。速记：DV = Data/outcome（数据结果）。
Operationalisation: Clearly defining variables in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV). This turns abstract concepts into testable procedures.
操作化：明确界定变量如何被操纵（IV）或测量（DV），把抽象概念转化为可测试的程序。速记：Operationalise = Make it measurable（使其可测量）。
Hypothesis: A precise, testable statement predicting the relationship between the IV and DV. It can be directional (one-tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed), and the null hypothesis states there will be no effect or difference.
假设：精确、可检验的预测陈述，说明IV与DV的关系。可以是方向性（单尾）或非方向性（双尾），虚无假设则陈述没有效果或差异。速记：H1 predicts, H0 rejects.
Demand Characteristics: Cues in an experiment that reveal the research aims to participants, causing them to alter their behaviour and potentially invalidating results.
需求特征：实验中不经意透露研究目的的线索，使被试改变行为，可能使结果无效。速记：Participants try to ‘help’ or ‘sabotage’ — 被试想当“好被试”。
2. Experimental Design & Ethics | 实验设计与伦理术语
Independent Groups Design: Different participants are allocated to each condition of the experiment. This avoids order effects but may be affected by participant variables.
独立组设计：不同被试被分配到实验的各个条件中。可避免顺序效应，但可能受被试变量影响。速记：Each group does only one level of IV — 一人一组干一事。
Repeated Measures Design: The same participants take part in all conditions of the experiment. This controls participant variables but can cause order effects like fatigue or practice.
重复测量设计：同一组被试参与所有实验条件。控制了个体差异，但可能产生疲劳、练习等顺序效应。速记：Same people, all conditions — 同班人马，轮番上阵。
Matched Pairs Design: Participants are paired based on key characteristics, then one from each pair is assigned to each condition. This reduces participant variables without order effects, but matching is never perfect.
配对组设计：根据关键特征将被试配对，再将每对中的一人分配至不同条件。减少了被试变量且无顺序效应，但匹配难以完美。速记：Twinning participants on one trait — 找“双胞胎”分两边。
Informed Consent: Participants must be given comprehensive information about the study to make a voluntary decision about participation. If deception is used, consent may be gained retrospectively through debriefing.
知情同意：必须向被试充分说明研究信息，使其自愿决定参与。若使用欺骗，可通过事后解说补获回溯性同意。速记：知情才点头，骗完要补救。
Debriefing: After the study, participants are fully informed of the true aims, any deception is explained, and they are offered the right to withdraw their data. This restores participant well-being.
事后解说：研究结束后，向被试完全告知真实目的，解释所有欺骗，并给予撤回数据的权利，帮助被试恢复。速记：Debrief = truth after study（研究后吐真言）。
3. Biological Psychology: Nervous System & Neurons | 生物心理学：神经系统与神经元
Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It processes sensory information and coordinates responses. The brain is the centre of conscious awareness; the spinal cord relays information and controls reflexes.
中枢神经系统（CNS）：由脑和脊髓组成，处理感觉信息并协调反应。脑是有意识觉察的中心；脊髓传递信息并控制反射。速记：CNS = Command Centre（指挥中心）。
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nerves outside the CNS. It is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary movement) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary regulation of internal organs).
外周神经系统（PNS）：CNS以外的所有神经，分为躯体神经系统（随意运动）和自主神经系统（内脏非随意调节）。速记：PNS = Peripheral Pathways（外围通路）。
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) & Branches: The sympathetic branch triggers ‘fight or flight’ — increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion. The parasympathetic branch restores ‘rest and digest’ — calms the body and conserves energy.
自主神经系统（ANS）及其分支：交感神经触发“战或逃”——心跳加快、瞳孔放大、抑制消化。副交感神经恢复“休息与消化”——让身体平静、保存能量。速记：Sympathetic = Stress, Parasympathetic = Peace.
Synaptic Transmission: When an electrical impulse reaches the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic gap. They bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, producing either excitation (e.g. through dopamine) or inhibition (e.g. through serotonin).
突触传递：电冲动到达轴突终末时，神经递质释放到突触间隙，与突触后神经元的受体位点结合，产生兴奋（如多巴胺）或抑制（如血清素）。速记：Electrical becomes chemical across the tiny gap — 电变化学越小隙。
4. Biological Psychology: Brain & Scanning | 生物心理学：大脑与扫描技术
Hippocampus: A structure in the limbic system crucial for forming new long-term explicit memories and spatial navigation. Damage can result in anterograde amnesia.
海马体：边缘系统中的一个结构，对形成新的外显长时记忆和空间导航至关重要。损伤可导致顺行性遗忘。速记：Hippocampus = Has memories（存储记忆的海马）。
Amygdala: An almond-shaped structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression. It also plays a role in forming emotional memories.
杏仁核：杏仁状结构，参与处理情绪，特别是恐惧和攻击性，也参与形成情绪记忆。速记：Amygdala = Alarm (情绪警报器)。
fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A brain scanning technique that measures blood flow changes associated with neural activity. It produces detailed images showing active brain areas, with high spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution and is expensive.
功能磁共振成像（fMRI）：测量与神经活动相关的血流变化的脑扫描技术，生成显示活跃脑区的高空间分辨率图像，但时间分辨率差且昂贵。速记：fMRI = Flowing blood mapped (血流绘图)。
EEG (Electroencephalogram) & ERP (Event-Related Potential): EEG records electrical activity across the brain via scalp electrodes, providing excellent temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution. ERPs are small voltage changes triggered by specific stimuli and isolated from EEG data, allowing study of cognitive processing.
脑电图（EEG）和事件相关电位（ERP）：EEG通过头皮电极记录全脑电活动，时间分辨率极佳但空间分辨率差。ERP是从EEG中分离出的由特定刺激触发的小电压变化，用于研究认知加工。速记：EEG = Electrified waves (全脑波形), ERP = Event-triggered spikes (事件触发针尖)。
5. Cognitive Psychology: Memory Models | 认知心理学：记忆模型
Sensory Register: The first store in the multi-store model, where information from the senses is held briefly in its raw form. It has a very large capacity but a duration of only around 250 milliseconds. The iconic store handles visual data, and the echoic store handles auditory data.
感觉登记：多存贮模型中的第一个存贮库，感觉信息以其原始形式短暂保留。容量极大，持续时间仅约250毫秒。图像储存处理视觉数据，声像储存处理听觉数据。速记：Sensory register = Fleeting snapshot (转瞬即逝的快照)。
Short-Term Memory (STM) & Capacity/Duration: STM is a temporary, active store with a limited capacity of about 7±2 items (Miller) and a duration of up to 30 seconds unless rehearsed. Maintenance rehearsal keeps information in STM and can transfer it to long-term memory.
短时记忆（STM）及容量/持续时间：STM是一个临时活跃存贮库，容量有限约7±2个项目（米勒），持续时间最长约30秒，除非复述。维持性复述将信息保持在STM并可转入长时记忆。速记：STM = Small Temporary Memory, about 7 chunks.
Long-Term Memory (LTM) & Types: LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and duration. It is divided into episodic (personal life events), semantic (facts and knowledge), and procedural (skills and actions) memory, according to Tulving.
长时记忆（LTM）及类型：LTM容量和持续时间几乎无限。图尔文将其分为情景记忆（个人生活事件）、语义记忆（事实与知识）和程序性记忆（技能与行动）。速记：Episodic = Experiences, Semantic = School facts, Procedural = Play the piano.
Working Memory Model: Baddeley & Hitch’s model splits STM into a central executive (supervises and allocates attention), a phonological loop (verbal and acoustic information, with a phonological store and articulary rehearsal component), a visuospatial sketchpad (visual and spatial information), and the episodic buffer (integrates information from all components and links to LTM).
工作记忆模型：巴德利和希奇将STM拆分为中央执行器（监督分配注意）、语音回路（处理言语与声音信息，含语音存贮和发音复述）、视空间画板（处理视觉空间信息）及情景缓冲区（整合各类信息并与LTM连接）。速记：CEO (central executive) and three assistants: Voice, Eye, and Diary (buffer).
6. Cognitive Psychology: Forgetting & Eyewitness Testimony | 认知心理学：遗忘与目击证词
Proactive Interference: Forgetting occurs when older, previously learned information disrupts the recall of newer information. For example, an old password interferes with a new one.
前摄干扰：旧信息干扰新信息的提取导致遗忘。例如，旧密码干扰记住新密码。速记：Proactive = Past intrudes, old messes up new.
Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts the recall of old information. For instance, learning a new phone number makes it harder to remember an old one.
倒摄干扰：新信息干扰旧信息的提取。例如，新电话号码让人难以记起旧号码。速记：Retroactive = Recent overrides the old (新的覆盖旧的)。
Retrieval Failure: Forgetting due to the absence of appropriate cues. The encoding specificity principle states that recall is better when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding (state-dependent or context-dependent cues).
提取失败：因缺少适当线索而遗忘。编码特异性原则指出，当提取时的情境与编码时匹配，回忆效果更好（状态依存或情境依存线索）。速记：Can’t find the file without the right folder path — 没找到文件夹就打不开文件。
Leading Questions & Cognitive Interview: A leading question (Loftus & Palmer) contains implied information that can distort an eyewitness’s memory. The cognitive interview uses techniques like ‘report everything’, ‘reinstate context’, ‘reverse order’, and ‘change perspective’ to enhance accurate recall.
诱导性问题与认知访谈：诱导性问题（洛夫特斯和帕尔默）包含暗示信息，可歪曲目击者记忆。认知访谈使用“报告一切”“复原情境”“倒序回忆”“改变视角”等技术来提高准确回忆。速记：Leading = Luring memory, Cognitive interview = CI four tools.
7. Social Psychology: Conformity & Obedience | 社会心理学：从众与服从
Compliance (Type of Conformity): Publicly going along with group norms while privately disagreeing. It is the shallowest level of conformity and ceases when group pressure is removed.
顺从（从众类型）：公开行为依从群体规范，但私下并不认同。这是最浅层的从众，群体压力消失后顺从即停止。速记：Compliance = Comply externally, disagree internally (外顺内不服)。
Identification (Type of Conformity): Conforming to a group role or expectation because membership is valued. The individual changes both public behaviour and sometimes private beliefs, but only while the group is present.
认同（从众类型）：因看重群体成员身份而遵从角色或期望，个体在群体存在时改变公开行为，有时也改变私下信念。速记：Identification = I want to belong (我想合群)。
Internalisation (Type of Conformity): Deepest level of conformity in which the individual genuinely accepts the group’s norms both publicly and privately. The behaviour persists even in the absence of the group.
内化（从众类型）：最深层的从众，私下和公开都真正接受群体规范，即使在群体不在场时行为依然保持。速记：Internalisation = It becomes internal belief (从内心认同)。
Normative Social Influence (NSI): Conformity based on the desire to be liked and accepted by a group. It often leads to compliance and is driven by a need for social approval rather than a desire to be correct.
规范性社会影响（NSI）：基于希望被群体喜欢和接纳的从众，常导致顺从，由社会认可需求驱动而非追求正确。速记：NSI = Need to be Socially Included (渴望被接纳)。
Informational Social Influence (ISI): Conformity because one believes the group has the correct information, particularly in ambiguous situations. It often leads to internalisation.
信息性社会影响（ISI）：因相信群体掌握正确信息而从众，尤其在模糊情境中，常导致内化。速记：ISI = I Seek Info (我寻求信息)。
Agency Theory & Legitimate Authority: Milgram proposed that obedience occurs when a person enters an agentic state, seeing themselves as an agent carrying out the wishes of a legitimate authority figure and no longer feeling personally responsible for their actions.
代理理论与合法权威：米尔格拉姆提出，当人进入代理状态，将自己视为执行合法权威人物意愿的工具，不再为行为承担个人责任时，服从便会产生。速记：Agentic state = Just following orders (只是奉命行事)。
8. Social Psychology: Minority Influence & Social Change | 社会心理学：少数派影响与社会变革
Consistency: Minority influence is effective when the minority maintains a consistent, unwavering position over time (diachronic consistency) and across members (synchronic consistency). This makes the majority reconsider.
一致性：少数派若能长期（历时一致性）且成员间（共时一致性）保持一致立场，其影响力就会有效，促使多数派重新考量。速记：Consistency = Same message, again and again (同一信息反复说)。
Commitment: When the minority demonstrates dedication to their cause, often through personal sacrifice or engaging in risky activities, they attract attention and are taken more seriously — the augmentation principle.
投入：少数派若表现出对事业的献身精神，常通过自我牺牲或冒险行为（增强原则），就能吸引注意并被更认真地对待。速记：Commitment = Costly actions show you really care (付出代价显真心)。
Flexibility: Though consistency is vital, the minority must also show some degree of flexibility — being willing to negotiate and not appear dogmatic. This balance strengthens persuasion.
灵活性：尽管一致性至关重要，少数派也须展现一定的灵活性——愿意协商，不显得顽固。这种平衡能增强说服力。速记：Consistent but not rigid (坚持而不僵化)。
Social Change through Minority Influence: Social cryptoamnesia is the phenomenon where society adopts the ideas of the minority but forgets the source. The snowball effect describes how a minority view gradually gains adherents until a tipping point is reached, leading to widespread change.
通过少数派影响实现社会变革：社会失忆症是指社会采纳少数派观念却忘记其来源。雪球效应则描述少数派观点逐渐获得支持者直至临界点，带来广泛变革。速记：Cryptoamnesia = Ideas remembered, source forgotten (思想被记住，源头被忘记)。
9. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Interactional Synchrony: Caregiver and infant mirror each other’s actions and emotions in a synchronised, rhythmic way. Meltzoff & Moore observed infants as young as two weeks imitating specific facial expressions.
互动同步：照看者与婴儿以同步、有节奏的方式相互模仿动作和情绪。梅尔佐夫和莫尔观察到两周大的婴儿就能模仿特定面部表情。速记：Synchrony = Copying in time (同步复制)。
Reciprocity: A two-way, mutual process in which caregiver and infant respond to each other’s signals, each eliciting a response from the other, like a turn-taking dance.
相互性：照看者和婴儿双向互动的过程，双方回应对方的信号，如同轮流跳舞。速记：Reciprocity = Two-way dance (你来我往的舞步)。
Strange Situation & Attachment Types: Ainsworth’s procedure assesses attachment quality through a series of separations and reunions. Secure (Type B) explores happily while caregiver is present and is easily soothed. Insecure-avoidant (Type A) ignores caregiver and explores independently. Insecure-resistant (Type C) clings, is distressed, and resists comfort.
陌生情境与依恋类型：安斯沃思通过一系列分离和重聚程序评估依恋质量。安全型（B）在照看者在场时愉快探索且易被安抚；不安全-回避型（A）忽视照看者并独立探索；不安全-抵抗型（C）粘人、痛苦且抗拒安慰。速记：Secure = seeks comfort, Avoidant = avoids, Resistant = resists.
Internal Working Model: Bowlby’s concept that the first attachment relationship forms a mental template for future relationships. A securely attached child develops a positive model of others as trustworthy and the self as lovable.
内部工作模型：鲍尔比的概念，第一个依恋关系形成未来关系的心理模板。安全依恋的儿童发展出他人可信、自己可爱积极模型。速记：Internal working model = Relational blueprint (关系的蓝图)。
10. Psychopathology: Definitions & Treatments | 心理病理学：定义与疗法
Deviation from Social Norms: Abnormality is defined as behaviour that violates unwritten rules of society. However, social norms are culturally relative and change over time, which can lead to labelling issues.
偏离社会规范：将违反社会不成文规则的行为定义为异常。但社会规范有文化相对性且随时间变化，可能导致标签问题。速记：Different societies, different ‘madness’ (疯狂因社会而异)。
Failure to Function Adequately: Abnormality exists when a person can no longer cope with everyday life, showing signs such as personal distress, unpredictability, and observer discomfort. The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale can be used.
无法正常工作：当一个人无法应对日常生活，表现出个人痛苦、不可预测性和观察者不适时，即存在异常。可使用功能大体评定量表。速记：Can’t hold down a job or relationships — 生活停摆。
Two-Process Model (Phobias): Mowrer’s model states phobias are acquired by classical conditioning (a neutral stimulus becomes a feared one via association with a trauma) and maintained by operant conditioning (avoidance reduces anxiety, negatively reinforcing the phobic behaviour).
双过程模型（恐惧症）：莫勒的模型指出，恐惧症通过经典条件作用获得（中性刺激经与创伤联结变成恐惧刺激），并通过操作性条件作用维持（回避减轻焦虑，负强化恐惧行为）。速记：Acquired by association, maintained by relief (习得靠联结，维持靠解压)。
Systematic Desensitisation (SD): A behavioural therapy for phobias that pairs relaxation with a graduated hierarchy of feared stimuli. Reciprocal inhibition prevents anxiety and relaxation from occurring simultaneously, gradually extinguishing the fear response.
系统脱敏（SD）：一种恐惧症行为疗法，将放松与从低到高的恐惧等级配对。交互抑制阻止焦虑与放松同时出现，逐渐消除恐惧反应。速记：SD = Slowly Desensitise step by step (步步脱敏)。
Beck’s Negative Triad & CBT for Depression: Beck proposed that depression is maintained by negative schemas and a negative triad — pessimistic views of the self, the world, and the future. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) aims to challenge these irrational thoughts and replace them with more constructive beliefs through techniques such as behavioural activation and thought records.
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