📚 IGCSE AQA Politics: Key Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Revision Guide | IGCSE AQA 政治：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering political vocabulary is essential for IGCSE AQA Politics. This guide breaks down key terms into manageable chunks, providing clear English definitions alongside their Chinese equivalents to help you revise efficiently and perform well in your exams.
掌握政治词汇对于 IGCSE AQA 政治考试至关重要。本指南将关键术语分块解析，提供清晰的英文定义及其中文对应，帮助您高效复习，在考试中取得好成绩。
1. Core Concepts of Politics | 政治学核心概念
Politics is the process through which individuals and groups make collective decisions. It involves negotiation, compromise, and the exercise of power to allocate resources in a society.
政治是个人和群体做出集体决策的过程。它涉及协商、妥协以及通过权力运用来分配社会资源。
Government refers to the formal institutions and processes that create, interpret, and enforce laws. It typically comprises the executive, legislature, and judiciary.
政府是指制定、解释和执行法律的正式机构和程序。它通常由行政、立法和司法部门组成。
Governance is broader than government; it includes the roles of civil society, media, and private sector in steering society. Good governance implies accountability, transparency, and participation.
治理比政府的含义更广，它包括公民社会、媒体和私营部门在引导社会方面的作用。善治意味着问责、透明和参与。
Legitimacy means the rightful acceptance of authority by the people. A government with legitimacy is seen as having the moral or legal right to rule.
合法性是指人民对权威的正当认可。一个具有合法性的政府被认为拥有道德或法律上的统治权。
2. Democracy and Authoritarianism | 民主与威权主义
Democracy is a system of government where power lies with the people, exercised directly or through elected representatives. Key features include free elections, civil liberties, and the rule of law.
民主是一种权力属于人民的政府体制，人民直接或通过选举代表行使权力。主要特征包括自由选举、公民自由和法治。
Direct democracy is a form where citizens vote on every issue themselves, without representatives. It is rare in modern large-scale states but found in referendums.
直接民主是一种公民自己对每个问题投票、无需代表的形式。在现代大规模国家中较罕见，但见于全民公决。
Representative democracy is more common: citizens elect politicians to make decisions on their behalf. If representatives fail, they can be voted out at the next election.
代议制民主更常见：公民选举政治家代表自己做出决策。如果代表不力，他们可以在下次选举中被投票出局。
Authoritarianism is a system where power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or small elite, with few political freedoms and limited accountability. Opposition is often suppressed.
威权主义是一种权力集中在单个领导人或一小撮精英手中的体制，政治自由很少，问责有限。反对派常受压制。
3. Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性
Power is the ability to make others do something they would not otherwise do, through coercion, persuasion, or influence. It can be political, economic, or military.
权力是通过强制、说服或影响使他人做其本不会做的事情的能力。它可以是政治的、经济的或军事的。
Authority is power that is recognised as rightful by those subject to it. Unlike raw power, authority does not need constant force because it is accepted.
权威是被服从者认为是正当的权力。与赤裸裸的权力不同，权威因被接受而无需持续使用武力。
Legitimacy, as defined earlier, is the justification for authority. Max Weber identified three types: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational legitimacy.
合法性，如前所述，是权威的正当理由。马克斯·韦伯划分了三种类型：传统型、魅力型和法理型合法性。
Sovereignty is the supreme and ultimate authority within a territory. In the UK, parliamentary sovereignty means Parliament can make or unmake any law.
主权是指领土内最高且最终的权威。在英国，议会主权意味着议会可以制定或废除任何法律。
4. The State and Sovereignty | 国家与主权
A state is an organised political community occupying a defined territory, with a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter relations with other states.
国家是一个占据确定领土、拥有常住人口、一个政府并能与其他国家建立关系的有组织的政治共同体。
The concept of the state includes four key elements: territory, population, government, and sovereignty. All must be present for a political unit to be considered a state.
国家概念包含四个关键要素：领土、人口、政府和主权。一个政治单位要被视为国家，这四个要素缺一不可。
Internal sovereignty refers to the state’s supreme authority over all persons and groups within its borders. External sovereignty means independence from outside control.
内部主权指国家对其边界内所有人和群体的至高权威。外部主权意味着不受外部控制的独立地位。
In a federal state, sovereignty is constitutionally divided between central and regional governments (e.g., USA). In a unitary state, all sovereignty resides at the centre (e.g., UK).
在联邦制国家中，主权由宪法在中央政府与区域政府之间划分（如美国）。在单一制国家中，所有主权归中央（如英国）。
5. Government Systems | 政府体制
A parliamentary system features a fusion of powers between the executive and legislature. The prime minister and cabinet are drawn from parliament and are accountable to it.
议会制以行政与立法部门权力融合为特征。首相和内阁来自议会，并对议会负责。
A presidential system separates the executive from the legislature. The president is directly elected, serves a fixed term, and cannot be removed by the legislature except through impeachment.
总统制将行政与立法部门分开。总统由直接选举产生，任期固定，除弹劾外不能被立法部门罢免。
A semi-presidential system combines elements of both: a directly elected president shares executive power with a prime minister accountable to parliament (e.g., France).
半总统制结合了两者要素：直接选举产生的总统与对议会负责的总理分享行政权力（如法国）。
Devolution is the transfer of certain powers from central government to regional or local bodies. In the UK, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland have devolved powers.
权力下放是将某些权力从中央政府转移给地区或地方机构。在英国，苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰拥有下放的权力。
6. Elections and Voting Systems | 选举与投票制度
First Past the Post (FPTP) is a plurality system where the candidate with the most votes wins in each constituency, even if not a majority. It often produces a strong single-party government but can distort representation.
简单多数制是每个选区得票最多者当选的多数制度，即使未过半数。它常产生强大的单一政党政府，但可能扭曲代表性。
Proportional Representation (PR) allocates seats in proportion to votes cast. It tends to produce multi-party coalitions and reflects the voters’ choices more accurately.
比例代表制按照所获选票比例分配席位。它倾向于产生多党联合政府，更准确地反映选民选择。
A referendum is a direct vote by the electorate on a specific policy question. It is a tool of direct democracy used for constitutional changes, as in the Brexit vote.
全民公决是选民就某个特定政策问题直接投票。它是用于宪法变革的直接民主工具，例如脱欧公投。
Turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot. High turnout is seen as a sign of a healthy democracy and strong political engagement.
投票率是有资格投票者中投票的比例。高投票率被视为健康民主和强烈政治参与的标志。
7. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党制度
A political party is an organised group that seeks to gain political power by winning elections. Parties develop policies, select candidates, and form governments.
政党是通过赢得选举来获取政治权力的有组织团体。政党制定政策、遴选候选人并组建政府。
Manifesto is the published set of promises and policies a party pledges to implement if elected. Voters use manifestos to compare parties at election time.
宣言是政党公布的若当选将实施的一系列承诺和政策。选民在大选时通过宣言来比较各政党。
A two-party system is one where two major parties dominate elections, with one usually forming the government and the other the official opposition (e.g., historically in the UK).
两党制指两个主要政党主导选举，其中一个通常组阁，另一个成为官方反对党（如历史上的英国）。
A multi-party system features several parties with significant representation, often leading to coalition governments. This is common under proportional representation.
多党制有数个拥有重要代表性的政党，常导致联合政府。这在比例代表制下很普遍。
8. The Constitution and Rule of Law | 宪法与法治
A constitution is the set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state is governed. It defines the structure of government and individual rights.
宪法是根据以治理国家的一套根本原则或既定先例。它定义政府结构和个人权利。
A codified constitution is written in a single document, like the US Constitution. An uncodified constitution is found in multiple sources, as in the UK.
成文宪法写在一个单一文件中，如美国宪法。不成文宪法存在于多种来源，如英国。
The rule of law means that everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law. It ensures fairness, predictability, and prevents arbitrary rule.
法治是指包括政府官员在内的每个人都受法律约束。它确保公正、可预测性，并防止恣意统治。
Separation of powers divides state authority into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent concentration of power. Fusion of powers blends executive and legislative branches, as in the UK.
分权制衡将国家权力分为立法、行政和司法分支，以防止权力集中。权力融合则混合行政和立法分支，如英国。
9. The Legislature: Parliament | 立法机构：议会
The legislature is the law-making branch of government. In the UK, a bicameral parliament consists of the House of Commons (elected) and the House of Lords (appointed/hereditary).
立法机构是政府的法律制定部门。在英国，两院制议会由下议院（选举产生）和上议院（任命/世袭）组成。
Parliamentary sovereignty is a principle of the UK constitution: Parliament is the supreme legal authority and can create or end any law. No court can overrule its legislation.
议会主权是英国宪法的一项原则：议会是最高法律权威，可以制定或废止任何法律。任何法院不能推翻其立法。
A backbencher is an MP who does not hold a ministerial or shadow ministerial role. Backbenchers can influence policy through debates, select committees, and private members’ bills.
后座议员是不担任部长或影子部长职务的议员。后座议员可通过辩论、特别委员会和普通议员议案影响政策。
The whip system is used to maintain party discipline. Whips ensure MPs attend votes and follow the party line. A three-line whip is the strictest instruction.
党鞭制度用于维持政党纪律。党鞭确保议员参与投票并遵循政党路线。三线党鞭是最严格的指示。
10. The Executive: Government and Prime Minister | 行政机构：政府与首相
The executive branch implements and enforces laws. In the UK, it consists of the Prime Minister, the Cabinet, ministers, and the civil service.
行政部门负责实施和执行法律。在英国，它由首相、内阁、大臣和文官系统构成。
The Prime Minister is the head of government, appointed by the monarch but normally the leader of the party with a majority in the Commons. Powers include appointing ministers and setting the policy direction.
首相是政府首脑，由君主任命，但通常是下议院多数党领袖。权力包括任命大臣和制定政策方向。
Cabinet collective responsibility means all cabinet members must publicly support government decisions, even if they privately disagree. If a minister cannot do so, they are expected to resign.
内阁集体负责制意味着所有内阁成员必须公开支持政府决定，即便私下不同意。如果大臣做不到，则应当辞职。
The civil service is the permanent bureaucracy that administers government policies, providing continuity. Civil servants are politically neutral and serve whichever party is in power.
文官系统是执行政府政策的常设官僚机构，提供连续性。文官保持政治中立，为任何执政党服务。
11. The Judiciary and Human Rights | 司法机构与人权
The judiciary interprets and applies the law, ensuring justice. Judicial independence means judges are free from political pressure and can make rulings based solely on law.
司法机构解释和适用法律，确保正义。司法独立意味着法官不受政治压力，可以仅依据法律做出裁决。
Judicial review is the power of courts to review the actions of the executive and legislature to ensure they are lawful. It upholds the rule of law.
司法审查是法院审查行政和立法行为以确保其合法的权力。它维护法治。
Human rights are fundamental rights and freedoms every person is entitled to, such as life, liberty, and equality. They are protected by laws like the Human Rights Act 1998 in the UK.
人权是每个人应享有的基本权利与自由，如生命权、自由权和平等权。它们受诸如英国《1998年人权法》等法律保护。
Civil liberties are freedoms that protect individuals from government overreach, including freedom of speech, assembly, and privacy. They are essential for a democratic society.
公民自由是保护个人免受政府过度干预的自由，包括言论自由、集会自由和隐私权。它们对民主社会至关重要。
12. Political Participation and Pressure Groups | 政治参与与压力集团
Political participation includes activities like voting, joining a party, protesting, or signing petitions. It is vital for linking citizens to government and shaping policy.
政治参与包括投票、加入政党、抗议或签署请愿等活动。它对于连接公民与政府、塑造政策至关重要。
A pressure group is an organised body that seeks to influence public policy without seeking election. They can be insider (consulted by government) or outsider (use media and protests).
压力集团是旨在影响公共政策而不寻求当选的有组织团体。它们可以是内部人集团（受政府咨询）或外部人集团（利用媒体和抗议）。
A sectional group represents the interests of a specific section of society, such as trade unions or professional bodies. Promotional groups advocate for a particular cause, like environmental protection.
部门性集团代表社会特定群体的利益，如工会或专业团体。倡议性集团倡导特定事业，如环境保护。
Lobbying is the act of seeking to influence decisions made by officials, especially legislators. It is a key tactic of pressure groups and can raise concerns about transparency.
游说是试图影响官员尤其是立法者决策的行为。它是压力集团的关键策略，也可能引发对透明度的担忧。
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