📚 IGCSE CCEA Sociology: Quick Vocabulary Memorisation Guide | IGCSE CCEA 社会学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is the first step towards success in your IGCSE CCEA Sociology exam. A clear understanding of key concepts will help you analyse topics, build arguments and write with confidence. This guide breaks down the most important terms you need to know, presenting them in accessible English–Chinese pairs with memory aids and contextual examples to reinforce your learning.
掌握社会学术语是 IGCSE CCEA 社会学考试成功的第一步。清晰理解关键概念将帮助你分析话题、构建论点并自信地答题。本指南拆解了你必须掌握的最重要术语，以英中双语对照形式呈现，并配有记忆诀窍和背景示例来巩固学习。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values and behaviours appropriate to their society. It shapes how we think, act and see ourselves.
社会化 是个体一生中学习适合所在社会的规范、价值观和行为的过程。它塑造了我们思考、行动和看待自己的方式。速记：把 ‘socialisation’ 想成 ‘social’ + ‘isation’ —— 让你融入社会的过程。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. They guide everyday actions like queuing, saying ‘please’ or dressing appropriately.
规范 是一个群体或社会中被认为可接受的行为的不成文规则。它们引导排队、说 ‘请’ 或者得体穿着等日常行为。联想：规范就是 ‘正常’ (normal) 做法。
Values are deeply held beliefs about what is right, wrong and desirable. They underpin norms and provide a moral compass for a society, such as valuing hard work, honesty or respect for elders.
价值观 是关于对与错、可取之事的深植信念。它们是规范的基础，为社会提供道德指南针，例如重视勤奋、诚实或尊老。
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a group, including language, beliefs, customs, dress, music and food. It is learned, shared and passed on through socialisation.
文化 指某一群体的整体生活方式，包括语言、信仰、习俗、服饰、音乐和食物。它是习得的、共享的，并通过社会化传承。记住：culture 包含了你能想到的几乎所有生活方面。
Roles are the expected patterns of behaviour associated with a particular social position. For example, the role of a student includes studying, listening to teachers and completing homework.
角色 是与特定社会地位相关联的精神期待行为模式。例如，学生的角色包括学习、听老师讲课和完成作业。把角色想象成脚本，告诉你该怎么演。
Status is the social position a person holds, which can be ascribed (given at birth, like sex or ethnicity) or achieved (earned through effort, like becoming a doctor).
地位 是个体拥有的社会位置，可以是先赋的（出生即获得，如性别或种族）或自致的（通过努力赢得，如成为医生）。
Identity is how we see ourselves and how others see us. It is shaped by a combination of factors, including socialisation, culture, roles and personal experiences.
身份认同 是我们如何看待自己以及别人如何看待我们。它由社会化、文化、角色和个人经历等因素共同塑造。速记：identity = I + dentity（你是谁）。
2. Agents of Socialisation | 社会化机构
Agents of socialisation are the individuals, groups and institutions that teach us the norms and values of society. The primary agent is the family, which provides early emotional bonds and basic behavioural rules.
社会化机构 是教会我们社会规范与价值观的个人、群体和制度。首要机构是家庭，它提供早期情感纽带和基本行为规则。
Peer group refers to people of similar age and status who share interests. During adolescence, the peer group becomes particularly influential, often shaping tastes in music, fashion and slang.
同龄群体 指年龄、地位相近并有着共同兴趣的人。在青春期，同龄群体影响力特别大，常常塑造音乐、时尚和俚语等方面的品味。
Education system acts as a formal agent of socialisation, transmitting knowledge and skills but also teaching punctuality, obedience and competition through the hidden curriculum.
教育体系 作为正式的社会化机构，不仅传递知识和技能，还通过 隐性课程 教会学生准时、服从和竞争。
Mass media includes television, social media, newspapers and radio. It provides role models and disseminates cultural norms on a massive scale, influencing public opinion and consumer behaviour.
大众传媒 包括电视、社交媒体、报纸和广播。它提供角色榜样，大规模传播文化规范，影响公众舆论和消费行为。
Religion often provides moral codes and rituals that reinforce social values. In many societies, religion shapes attitudes towards family life, work and authority.
宗教 经常提供道德准则和仪式，强化社会价值观。在许多社会中，宗教塑造了对家庭生活、工作和权威的态度。
Workplace socialises individuals into professional norms, such as teamwork, hierarchy and time management. It continues socialisation well into adult life.
职场 将个体社会化为专业规范，如团队合作、等级制度和时间管理。它在成年后继续社会化过程。联想：每个 agent 都像一个导师，教你 ‘怎样做人’。
3. Culture, Subculture and Cultural Diversity | 文化、亚文化与文化多样性
Subculture is a group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms, values and lifestyle, while still sharing some features of the mainstream culture. Examples include goths, hip-hop fans or religious communities.
亚文化 是较大文化中的一个群体，拥有自己独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍与主流文化有部分共通。例子包括哥特族、嘻哈迷或宗教团体。
Cultural diversity describes the variety of cultural traditions and identities that exist within a society. Celebrating diversity can enrich social life, but it can also lead to challenges around integration.
文化多样性 描绘了一个社会内存在的多种文化传统和身份认同。赞扬多样性可以丰富社会生活，但也会带来融合方面的挑战。
Cultural relativism means judging a culture by its own standards rather than by those of another culture. It encourages understanding without imposing one’s own cultural biases.
文化相对主义 指以该文化自身的标准来评判它，而不是用其他文化的标准。它鼓励理解，而不强加自身的文化偏见。
Ethnocentrism is the opposite: viewing one’s own culture as superior and using it as a yardstick to measure others. It can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
种族中心主义 则相反：视自身文化为优越，并以此为标尺衡量其他文化。这可能导致偏见和歧视。速记：ethno = 民族，centric = 中心，所以是以自己民族为中心。
Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade, communication and migration. It leads to cultural exchange but also fears of cultural homogenisation.
全球化 指通过贸易、通讯和人口的迁移，世界联系日益紧密的进程。它带来文化交流，但也引发文化同质化的担忧。
4. Social Class and Stratification | 社会阶级与分层
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society, usually based on class, status or power. It is a universal feature of all complex societies.
社会分层 是社会个体的等级化安排，通常基于阶级、地位或权力。它是所有复杂社会的普遍特征。
Social class is a grouping of people who share a similar economic position, lifestyle and life chances. Common categories include upper class, middle class and working class.
社会阶级 是有着相近经济地位、生活方式和生活机会的人群分组。常见分类包括上层阶级、中产阶级和工人阶级。联想：class = 课堂，但这里是把社会分层。
Life chances refer to the opportunities an individual has to access valuable social resources, such as education, healthcare and housing. Weber argued that class position strongly influences life chances.
生活机会 指个体获得教育资源、医疗、住房等有价值社会资源的机会。韦伯认为阶级地位有力地影响了生活机会。
Meritocracy is a system where individuals achieve success based on their own ability and effort, not their background. In practice, sociologists debate how truly meritocratic any society is.
精英治理 是一种个体凭自身能力和努力取得成功，而非靠出身的体制。实际上，社会学家就任何社会在多大程度上实现了精英治理争论不休。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy. It can be intergenerational (between generations) or intragenerational (within a person’s lifetime).
社会流动 指个体或群体在社会层级中的上升或下降流动。可以是代际流动（两代人之间）或代内流动（个人一生当中）。
5. Gender and Ethnicity | 性别与种族
Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormones and reproductive anatomy. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours and attributes considered appropriate for men and women.
生理性别 指男女之间的生物学差异，包括染色体、激素和生殖器官。社会性别 指社会构建的、被认为是适合男性和女性的角色、行为和特质。记忆：sex = 身体；gender = 头脑与社会。
Gender socialisation is the process through which individuals learn the gendered expectations of their society, often from an early age through toys, clothing and parental reinforcement.
性别社会化 是个体学习社会对性别的期待的过程，通常从小通过玩具、衣着和父母强化开始。
Patriarchy describes a social system in which men hold primary power, dominating in roles of political leadership, moral authority and control of property.
父权制 描绘了一种男性掌握主要权力，在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制方面占主导地位的社会体系。
Ethnicity relates to a shared culture, language, history and sense of belonging to a particular group. It is different from ‘race’, which is often based on physical characteristics.
族群性 涉及共同的文化、语言、历史和对特定群体的归属感。它不同于通常基于身体特征的 ‘种族’。
Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on their gender, ethnicity, age or other characteristics. It can be direct or indirect.
歧视 是基于性别、族群、年龄或其他特征对个体或群体不公平的对待。它可以是直接或间接的。
6. Family and Household | 家庭与住户
Nuclear family consists of two parents and their dependent children living together. It is often idealised in traditionalist discourse.
核心家庭 由父母双方及其需要抚养的子女共同居住组成。它常在传统主义话语中被理想化。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear unit, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, often living nearby or together. It is more common in many Asian and African societies.
扩展家庭 包括核心单元之外的亲属，如祖父母、姨、叔、伯等，常住在附近或同一屋檐下。在许多亚洲和非洲社会更常见。
Reconstituted family (or blended family) is formed when one or both partners have children from a previous relationship and combine to form a new household.
重组家庭（或称混合家庭）是在一方或双方带着前段关系所生子女结合形成的新住户。
Single-parent family consists of one parent raising children alone. This structure can result from divorce, separation, death or personal choice.
单亲家庭 由单亲抚养子女。这种结构可能因离异、分居、死亡或个人选择而产生。速记：family 的形式不止一种，CCEA 考题常让考生比较这些类型。
Cohabitation is when two people live together in an intimate relationship without being married. It has become increasingly common in modern industrial societies.
同居 指两人在没有结婚的情况下亲密地共同生活。在现代工业社会，同居已变得日益普遍。
7. Education and Inequality | 教育与不平等
Formal education is the structured transmission of knowledge, skills and values, typically within schools, colleges and universities, leading to recognised qualifications.
正式教育 是知识、技能和价值观的结构化传递，通常在学校、学院和大学中进行，最终获得认可的文凭。
Hidden curriculum refers to the informal learning of attitudes, values and norms conveyed through the routines, rules and organisation of schooling, such as discipline, punctuality and acceptance of hierarchy.
隐性课程 指通过学校日常惯例、规章制度和组织形式传递的态度、价值观和规范的潜性学习，如纪律、守时和对等级制度的接纳。
Material deprivation is a lack of money, resources and adequate living conditions that can hinder a child’s educational achievement. Poor housing, lack of computers or private tuition all fall under this umbrella.
物质匮乏 指缺钱、缺资源和良好生活条件，可能阻碍儿童的教育成就。恶劣住房、缺电脑或请不起家教都属此类。
Cultural deprivation argues that some families fail to provide their children with the cultural knowledge, language skills and attitudes necessary for academic success, reproducing disadvantage.
文化匮乏 理论认为一些家庭未能向子女提供学业成功所需的文化知识、语言技能和态度，从而复制了劣势。
Labelling is when teachers attach meanings to students based on perceived characteristics (e.g. ‘bright’, ‘troublemaker’), which can influence student self-image and achievement – a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签化 指教师根据对学生特征的感知（如 ‘聪明’、’捣蛋鬼’）赋予学生意义，这会影响学生自我形象和成绩，形成自我应验的预言。
8. Crime, Deviance and Social Control | 犯罪、越轨与社会控制
Deviance is any behaviour that goes against the dominant norms, values or expectations of a society. It is not always criminal; for example, having tattoos might be considered deviant in some workplaces but is not illegal.
越轨 指任何违背社会主导规范、价值观或期待的行为。它并不总是犯罪；比如纹身在某些职场可能被视为越轨，但不违法。速记：deviance = deviate（偏离） from norm。
Crime is an act that breaks formal laws and is punishable by the state. What counts as crime varies across time and cultures.
犯罪 是触犯正式法律并受国家惩罚的行为。什么算犯罪因时代和文化而异。
Social control refers to the mechanisms that regulate individual and group behaviour in order to maintain conformity. It can be formal (police, courts) or informal (family, gossip, peer pressure).
社会控制 指调节个人和群体行为以维持从众的机制。可以是 正式的（警察、法院）或 非正式的（家庭、闲话、同辈压力）。
Anomie (Durkheim) describes a state of normlessness in which society fails to regulate people’s desires, often leading to increased deviance during periods of rapid social change.
失范（涂尔干）描绘了一种社会规范缺失的状态，难以调控人们的欲望，常在社会急速变迁时期导致越轨增加。
White-collar crime is crime committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their occupation, such as fraud or embezzlement. It is often less visible and less harshly punished than street crime.
白领犯罪 指社会地位高的人在职业过程中实施的犯罪，如诈骗或挪用公款。往往比街头犯罪更隐蔽，惩罚也更轻。
Dark figure of crime refers to the amount of crime that goes unreported or unrecorded. Official statistics may therefore underestimate the true level of crime.
犯罪黑数 指未报案或未被记录的犯罪数量。因此官方统计可能低估真实的犯罪水平。
9. Social Inequality and Poverty | 社会不平等与贫困
Absolute poverty is a condition characterised by a severe lack of basic human needs, including food, clean water, shelter and healthcare. It is life-threatening and focuses on a fixed minimum standard.
绝对贫困 是一种严重缺乏基本人类需求（包括食物、清洁饮水、住所和医疗）的状况。它危及生命，并基于一个固定的最低标准。
Relative poverty refers to being poor in comparison to the living standards of the majority of a given society. It is about being unable to afford the goods and activities most people consider normal.
相对贫困 指与所在社会大多数人生活水平相比处于贫困状态。它关乎无法负担大部分人视为正常的物品与活动。联想：relative 是比较而来的。
Cycle of deprivation (or poverty cycle) suggests that poverty passes from one generation to the next through a combination of material, cultural and environmental factors.
剥夺循环（或贫困循环）指出贫困通过物质、文化和环境因素组合，从一代传递到下一代。
Welfare state is a system in which the government takes responsibility for protecting the health and well-being of its citizens, especially those in financial or social need, through benefits, healthcare and education.
福利国家 是政府承担责任保护公民健康与福利的制度，特别是通过福利金、医疗和教育帮助经济或社会上有需要的人。
Social exclusion describes the process by which certain groups are systematically blocked from rights, opportunities and resources, leading to their marginalisation in society.
社会排斥 描绘了特定群体被系统性阻挡在权利、机会和资源之外，从而导致其在社会中被边缘化的过程。
10. Power, Authority and Research Methods | 权力、权威与研究方法
Power is the ability to make others do what you want, even if they resist. It can be based on force, wealth, status or knowledge.
权力 是让他人按照你的意愿行事的能力，即便对方抗拒。它可以基于武力、财富、地位或知识。
Authority (Max Weber) is legitimate power – power that people accept as right. Weber distinguished traditional authority (based on customs), charismatic authority (based on personal qualities) and legal-rational authority (based on formal rules).
权威（韦伯）是正当化的权力——人们认同其为正当的权力。韦伯区分了 传统型权威（基于习俗）、魅力型权威（基于个人特质）和 法理型权威（基于正式规则）。
Quantitative data is numerical information that can be counted or measured, such as statistics, percentages or survey scores. It is favoured by positivist sociologists.
定量数据 是可计数或可度量的数字信息，如统计数据、百分比或问卷调查得分。它受到实证主义社会学家的青睐。
Qualitative data is non-numerical, in-depth information about meanings, experiences and feelings, often collected through interviews, observations or open-ended questionnaires. It is favoured by interpretivists.
定性数据 是关于意义、经历和感受的非数字化的深入信息，常通过访谈、观察或开放式问卷收集。它受到解释主义者的青睐。
Primary data is original information collected firsthand by the researcher for a specific purpose (e.g. a sociologist’s own survey). Secondary data already exists, such as government reports, diaries or previous research.
一手数据 是研究者为特定目的亲自收集的原始信息（例如社会学家自己的问卷调查）。二手数据 已经存在，如政府报告、日记或先前的研究。
Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population to participate in research. A representative sample allows sociologists to generalise findings.
抽样 是从较大总体中选出部分个体参与研究的过程。一个具代表性的样本使社会学家能推广研究发现。
Ethics in social research refer to moral principles guiding how research should be conducted. Key principles include informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm and the right to withdraw.
研究伦理 指指导研究如何进行的道德原则。主要原则包括知情同意、保密、避免伤害和退出自由。速记：尊重参与者，如尊重你自己。
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