📚 IGCSE CIE Political Studies: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | IGCSE CIE 政治：公式定理速查手册
This quick-reference guide brings together the core concepts, theories, and models of IGCSE CIE Political Studies into concise “formula-style” summaries. From power and authority to electoral systems, ideologies, and international relations, each entry delivers the essential definition, mechanism, or comparison in paired English-Chinese explanations. Use this handbook for rapid revision, essay planning, and last-minute check-ups before exams.
这本速查手册将 IGCSE CIE 政治学科的核心概念、理论与模型浓缩为简洁的“公式式”摘要。从权力与权威、选举制度到意识形态和国际关系，每条都以英中对照的方式提供关键定义、机制或对比。本书适用于快速复习、论文构思和考前最后一刻的检查。
1. Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性
Power is the ability to influence or control the behaviour of others. Authority is the right to exercise power, and legitimacy is the belief that this right is justified. Together they form the basis of political rule.
权力是影响或控制他人行为的能力；权威是行使权力的权利；合法性是认为这种权利正当的信念。三者共同构成政治统治的基础。
Power: the capacity to make others act in a certain way, even against their will.
权力：使他人以某种方式行动的能力，即便违背其意愿。
Authority: power recognised as legitimate by those subject to it; based on consent or established rules.
权威：被服从者承认为合法的权力，基于同意或既定规则。
Legitimacy: the popular acceptance that a government has the right to rule.
合法性：民众对政府统治权利的普遍接受。
Max Weber’s three ideal types of authority: traditional (customs), charismatic (personal qualities), legal-rational (laws and procedures).
马克斯·韦伯的三种理想型权威：传统型（习俗）、魅力型（个人品质）、法理型（法律与程序）。
2. The State and Sovereignty | 国家与主权
A state is a political entity with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and sovereignty. Sovereignty means supreme legal authority within the territory and independence from external control.
国家是一个拥有明确领土、常住人口、政府和主权的政治实体。主权意味着领土内最高的法律权威和不受外部控制的独立性。
Four features of a state: territory, population, government, sovereignty.
国家的四大特征：领土、人口、政府、主权。
Internal sovereignty: the state’s ultimate decision-making power within its borders.
对内主权：国家在其边界内最终的决策权力。
External sovereignty: the state’s recognition as independent by other states and the international community.
对外主权：其他国家及国际社会对该国独立地位的承认。
Failed state: a state unable to perform its core functions, losing control over territory and the monopoly of force.
失败国家：无法履行核心职能、丧失领土控制与武力垄断的国家。
3. Democracy and Dictatorship | 民主与独裁
Democracy is a system of government in which the people rule, either directly or through elected representatives. Dictatorship is a system in which a single person or a small group holds absolute power without constitutional accountability.
民主是由人民直接或通过选举代表进行统治的政体。独裁则是由一人或一小群人掌握绝对权力、不受宪法约束的政体。
Liberal democracy: free and fair elections, rule of law, protection of individual rights, separation of powers, pluralism.
自由民主制：自由公正的选举、法治、个人权利保护、权力分立、多元主义。
Dictatorship: absence of competitive elections, suppression of opposition, control over media, centralised decision-making.
独裁：缺少竞争性选举、压制反对派、控制媒体、决策集中化。
Direct democracy: citizens vote on laws directly (e.g., referendums).
直接民主：公民直接就法律投票（如全民公投）。
Representative democracy: citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
代议制民主：公民选举代表代为决策。
4. Forms of Government: Parliamentary vs Presidential | 政府形式：议会制与总统制
The two main democratic government structures. In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from and accountable to the legislature. In a presidential system, the executive is separately elected and independent of the legislature.
两种主要的民主政府结构。议会制中，行政机关产生于立法机关并对其负责；总统制中，行政机关由单独选举产生，独立于立法机关。
Parliamentary system: fusion of powers, prime minister as head of government, collective cabinet responsibility, vote of no confidence can trigger early elections.
议会制：权力融合，总理为政府首脑，内阁集体负责，不信任投票可触发提前大选。
Presidential system: separation of powers, president is both head of state and head of government, fixed terms, stronger checks and balances.
总统制：权力分立，总统既是国家元首又是政府首脑，任期固定，制衡更强。
Examples: UK – parliamentary; USA – presidential.
示例：英国——议会制；美国——总统制。
5. Electoral Systems: FPTP vs Proportional Representation | 选举制度：多数代表制与比例代表制
Electoral systems translate votes into seats. The two main types are plurality/majority systems such as First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) and Proportional Representation (PR).
选举制度将选票转化为席位。两大主要类型为多数代表制（如简单多数制 FPTP）和比例代表制（PR）。
FPTP: single-member constituencies, winner takes all. Pros – strong single-party governments, clear link between MP and constituency. Cons – wasted votes, disproportionate outcomes, smaller parties disadvantaged.
简单多数制：单一选区，胜者全得。优点——易形成强有力的一党政府，议员与选区联系紧密。缺点——大量浪费选票，结果不成比例，小党不利。
PR: multi-member constituencies, seats allocated according to share of votes. Pros – fairer representation of parties, fewer wasted votes. Cons – often leads to coalition governments, weaker constituency link.
比例代表制：大选区或全国选区，按得票比例分配席位。优点——政党代表性更公平，浪费选票少。缺点——常导致联合政府，选区联系较弱。
6. Political Parties and Party Systems | 政党与政党制度
Political parties are organisations that seek to win government power through elections. Party systems describe the number and strength of parties operating in a state.
政党是通过选举寻求赢得政府权力的组织。政党制度描述一个国家内政党的数量与力量格局。
Functions of parties: representation, policy formulation, candidate selection, organising government, providing political education, opposition role.
政党职能：代表、政策制定、候选人选拔、组织政府、进行政治教育、反对党角色。
One-party system: only one legal party (e.g., China). Dominant-party system: free elections but one party consistently wins (e.g., South Africa’s ANC). Two-party system: two major parties alternate in power (e.g., USA). Multi-party system: several parties share power, often through coalitions (e.g., Germany).
一党制：仅一个合法政党（如中国）。主导型政党制：自由选举但一党长期胜选（如南非非国大）。两党制：两大党轮流执政（如美国）。多党制：多个政党分享权力，常通过联合政府（如德国）。
7. Political Ideologies: Left and Right | 政治意识形态：左派与右派
Ideologies are sets of political beliefs and values that guide action. The traditional left-right spectrum places ideologies according to their views on equality, the role of the state, and economic intervention.
意识形态是指导行动的一套政治信念和价值观。传统的左右光谱根据各意识形态对平等、国家角色和经济干预的看法进行排列。
Socialism (left): collective ownership, reduction of inequality, extensive welfare, public services.
社会主义（左）：公有制，减少不平等，广泛福利与公共服务。
Conservatism (right): tradition, order, private property, limited state intervention in economy.
保守主义（右）：传统、秩序、私有财产、有限的国家经济干预。
Liberalism (centre-left to centre): individual freedom, human rights, free market but with regulation, tolerance.
自由主义（中左至中间）：个人自由、人权、自由市场但有一定监管、宽容。
Fascism (extreme right): authoritarian nationalism, suppression of opposition, state control of society, leader cult.
法西斯主义（极右）：威权民族主义，压制反对派，国家控制社会，领袖崇拜。
8. Theories of International Relations | 国际关系理论
Two major theories explain how states behave on the world stage. Realism focuses on power and national interest; liberalism emphasises cooperation, institutions, and interdependence.
两大理论解释国家在世界舞台上的行为。现实主义专注于权力和国家利益；自由主义强调合作、制度和相互依存。
Realism: states are primary actors, international system is anarchic, survival and security drive behaviour, military power is key.
现实主义：国家是主要行为体，国际体系无政府状态，生存与安全驱动行为，军事力量是关键。
Liberalism: states can cooperate through institutions, democracy and trade reduce conflict, international law and organisations matter.
自由主义：国家可通过制度合作，民主与贸易减少冲突，国际法和国际组织起作用。
Constructivism (additional): state interests are shaped by ideas, norms, and identities, not just material power.
建构主义（补充）：国家利益由观念、规范和身份塑造，而非仅由物质权力决定。
9. Global Governance: UN and EU | 全球治理：联合国与欧盟
Global governance involves institutions and rules that manage international affairs. The United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU) are key examples.
全球治理涉及管理国际事务的机构和规则。联合国（UN）和欧洲联盟（EU）是关键实例。
United Nations: founded 1945, 193 member states. Main organs: General Assembly (all members), Security Council (5 permanent, 10 non-permanent), Secretariat, ICJ. Key functions: peacekeeping, human rights, development.
联合国：1945年成立，193个会员国。主要机构：大会（全体会员国）、安全理事会（5常任，10非常任）、秘书处、国际法院。主要职能：维和、人权、发展。
European Union: 27 member states, supranational and intergovernmental elements. Single market, euro currency, common policies. Key institutions: European Commission, European Parliament, Council of the EU, European Council.
欧洲联盟：27个成员国，兼有超国家和政府间性质。单一市场、欧元共同货币、共同政策。主要机构：欧盟委员会、欧洲议会、欧盟理事会、欧洲理事会。
10. Citizen Participation and Pressure Groups | 公民参与与压力集团
Citizen participation goes beyond voting and includes membership in pressure groups, protests, and direct action. Pressure groups seek to influence government without standing for election.
公民参与不止于投票，还包括加入压力集团、抗议和直接行动。压力集团不竞选公职，但试图影响政府。
Insider pressure groups: have close links with government, consulted regularly (e.g., trade unions in some countries).
内部压力集团：与政府关系密切，经常被咨询（如某些国家的工会）。
Outsider pressure groups: lack direct access, use media campaigns and demonstrations (e.g., Greenpeace).
外部压力集团：缺乏直接接触渠道，借助媒体运动和示威（如绿色和平）。
Functions: representation of interests, agenda-setting, scrutiny of government, providing expert information.
职能：利益代表、设定议程、监督政府、提供专业信息。
Methods: lobbying, petitions, protests, social media campaigns, legal challenges.
方法：游说、请愿、抗议、社交媒体运动、法律挑战。
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