IGCSE WJEC Accounting: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 会计：公式定理速查手册

📚 IGCSE WJEC Accounting: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | IGCSE WJEC 会计：公式定理速查手册

This IGCSE WJEC Accounting revision handbook compiles all essential formulas, ratios, and theorems required for the syllabus. Designed as a quick reference, it covers fundamental accounting equations through advanced analytical ratios, ensuring students can rapidly recall and apply these tools in examination contexts. Every formula is explained with its purpose, interpretation, and common pitfalls specific to WJEC examiners’ expectations.

本 IGCSE WJEC 会计复习手册汇编了课程所需的所有基本公式、比率和定理。作为速查手册，它涵盖了从基础会计等式到高级分析比率的内容，确保学生能够在考试环境中迅速回忆并应用这些工具。每个公式都附有目的、解释以及 WJEC 考官常见的易错点，帮助学生精准掌握。

The accounting equation states that assets equal liabilities plus capital. This dual‑aspect concept underpins the entire double‑entry system. An increase in assets must be accompanied by an increase in liabilities or capital, or a decrease in another asset.

会计等式表明资产等于负债加资本。这一复式记账核心概念支撑着整个复式记账体系。资产的增加必然伴随负债或资本的增加，或者另一资产的减少。

Accounting Equation:

Assets = Liabilities + Capital

For a limited company, capital is replaced by equity:

Assets = Liabilities + Equity

Expanded version incorporating income and expenses:

Assets + Expenses = Liabilities + Capital + Income

In practice, any transaction affects at least two accounts, keeping the equation balanced. WJEC examiners may test this by asking students to analyse a series of transactions and verify the effect on the accounting equation. Remember that drawings reduce capital, and profit from the income statement increases capital at the year‑end.

计入利润和费用的扩展式：资产+费用=负债+资本+收入。在实际操作中，任何交易至少影响两个账户，始终保持等式平衡。WJEC 考官可能通过要求分析一系列交易并验证对会计等式的影响来考查此知识点。需注意提款减少资本，而利润表中的利润在年末增加资本。

Profitability ratios measure a business’s ability to generate earnings relative to sales, assets, or equity. WJEC expects students to calculate, interpret, and suggest improvements for these ratios.

盈利能力比率衡量企业相对于销售额、资产或权益创造利润的能力。WJEC 期望学生能计算、解读这些比率并提出改进建议。

Gross Profit Margin (GPM)

GPM = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100

This ratio expresses the percentage of revenue remaining after covering cost of goods sold. A declining GPM may indicate rising purchase costs, stock theft, or heavy discounting. The benchmark varies by industry; a supermarket often has a low margin (<20%), while a jeweller may exceed 40%. Students should compare with prior periods and competitors.

毛利率表明在覆盖销货成本后剩余的销售收入百分比。毛利率下降可能表示采购成本上升、存货失窃或大打折扣。行业基准各不相同；超市毛利率通常较低（低于20%），而珠宝商可能超过40%。学生应与前期及竞争对手进行比较。

Net Profit Margin (NPM)

NPM = (Net Profit Before Interest and Tax ÷ Revenue) × 100

NPM reveals the overall profitability after all operating expenses but before financing costs. A low NPM compared with a healthy GPM suggests poor expense control. WJEC questions often couple GPM and NPM analysis, asking candidates to explain movements in both ratios using given expense data.

净利率反映了扣除所有营业费用但未扣除融资成本后的整体盈利能力。与较高的毛利率相比，净利率偏低表明费用控制不力。WJEC 考题常将毛利率和净利率结合分析，要求考生根据给出的费用数据解释两者的变动。

Return on Capital Employed (ROCE)

ROCE = (Net Profit Before Interest and Tax ÷ Capital Employed) × 100

Where capital employed = total assets – current liabilities, or non‑current liabilities + equity. ROCE indicates how efficiently a business uses its long‑term funds. A 15% ROCE means for every £100 of capital employed, the business generates £15 profit. This should be compared with bank interest rates; a ROCE below the cost of borrowing signals inefficiency.

资本利润率显示企业运用长期资金的效率。资本利用率=总资产–流动负债，或非流动负债+权益。15%的资本利润率意味着每100英镑的资本投入产生15英镑的利润。需与银行贷款利率比较；资本利润率低于借款成本则表明效率低下。

Liquidity ratios assess a firm’s ability to meet short‑term obligations. Insolvency arises when current liabilities cannot be paid. WJEC distinguishes between the current ratio and the acid test ratio, frequently testing both within a single question.

流动性比率评估企业偿还短期债务的能力。当流动负债无法偿还时即出现破产。WJEC 区分流动比率和酸性测试比率，经常在同一题目中测试两者。

Current Ratio (Working Capital Ratio)

Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities

Expressed as a ratio (e.g. 1.8:1), it shows how many times current assets cover current liabilities. A ratio between 1.5:1 and 2:1 is generally considered healthy, but this depends on the industry. A very high ratio may indicate inefficient use of cash or overstocking. A ratio below 1:1 is a warning sign, as the business cannot pay its debts from liquid assets alone.

流动比率以比值表示（如1.8:1），显示流动资产覆盖流动负债的倍数。通常认为1.5:1至2:1之间的比率较为健康，但需视行业而定。过高的比率可能表明现金利用效率低或存货积压。低于1:1的比率是警示信号，因为企业无法仅靠流动资产来偿还债务。

Acid Test Ratio (Quick Ratio)

Acid Test Ratio = (Current Assets – Inventory) ÷ Current Liabilities

Inventory is excluded because it may not be quickly convertible to cash. A ratio of 1:1 or above is desirable; it demonstrates the firm can meet short‑term debts without selling inventory. A sharp contrast between the current ratio and the quick ratio signals heavy dependence on inventory — a concern if stock turnover is slow.

扣除了存货，因为存货可能无法迅速变现。理想的比率是1:1或以上，表明公司不必出售存货即可偿还短期债务。流动比率与速动比率之间的悬殊差异意味着高度依赖存货——若存货周转缓慢，则存有隐患。

Trade receivables and payables metrics evaluate how efficiently a business collects debts and pays suppliers. They are often combined with liquidity analysis.

应收账款和应付账款指标评估企业收款和支付供应商的效率。它们常与流动性分析结合使用。

Trade Receivables Collection Period (Debtor Days)

Receivables Collection Period = (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365

This gives the average number of days it takes to collect money from credit customers. A period significantly longer than the firm’s credit terms (e.g. 60 days vs. 30 days terms) indicates poor credit control. WJEC may ask for an evaluation of the impact on cash flow and suggestions like offering discounts or stricter follow‑up.

计算从赊销客户收回款项的平均天数。若收账期远长于公司信用期限（如信用期为30天而实际为60天），则表明信用控制不佳。WJEC 考试可能要求评估对现金流的影响，并提出提供折扣或加强催收等建议。

Trade Payables Payment Period (Creditor Days)

Payables Payment Period = (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365

This reveals how long the business takes to pay its suppliers. Delaying payment conserves cash but may harm relationships and forfeit early‑settlement discounts. A significant increase year‑on‑year could signal cash flow problems. Note: if credit purchases are not given, cost of sales may be used as a proxy.

反映企业向供应商付款的平均天数。延长付款期能保留现金，但可能损害关系和丧失提前付款折扣。付款期同比显著增加可能暗示现金流问题。注意：若未给出赊购额，可使用销货成本作为近似值。

Inventory Turnover (Stock Turnover)

Inventory Turnover (times) = Cost of Sales ÷ Average Inventory

Alternatively expressed in days:

Inventory Turnover (days) = (Average Inventory ÷ Cost of Sales) × 365

Average inventory = (opening inventory + closing inventory) ÷ 2. A high turnover rate suggests efficient stock management and strong sales, while a low turnover rate may indicate obsolete stock or overstocking. Compare with industry norms and previous years.

平均存货 =（期初存货 + 期末存货）÷ 2。较高的存货周转率表明存货管理高效且销售强劲，较低的周转率则可能意味着存货过时或积压。需与行业标准和前期进行比较推算。

Depreciation allocates the cost of a non‑current asset over its useful life. WJEC requires calculation using both the straight‑line method and the reducing balance method, and an understanding of their implications.

折旧将非流动资产的成本分摊至其可使用年限。WJEC 要求使用直线法和余额递减法两种方法进行计算，并理解其影响。

Straight‑Line Method

Annual Depreciation = (Cost – Residual Value) ÷ Useful Life

This method charges an equal amount each year. It is simple and suitable for assets that provide steady benefits, e.g. buildings. If an asset is purchased part‑way through a year, depreciation must be apportioned based on the number of months owned.

每年计提等额折旧。方法简单，适用于使用效益稳定的资产，如建筑物。若资产在年度中途购入，则必须根据持有月数按比例计提折旧。

Reducing Balance Method

Annual Depreciation = Net Book Value × Depreciation Rate (%)

The net book value is cost less accumulated depreciation to date. A fixed percentage is applied each year, resulting in higher depreciation charges in early years. This reflects assets that lose value more quickly initially, such as vehicles. WJEC may ask students to compare the two methods and explain why a business chooses a particular approach.

账面净值等于成本减去截至当前的累计折旧。每年按固定百分比计提，导致早期折旧费用较高。这反映了初期贬值较快的资产（如汽车）的实际情况。WJEC 可能要求学生比较两种方法并解释企业选择特定方法的原因。

Irrecoverable debts and allowances for doubtful debts are key adjustments at the end of a period. The prudence concept requires that debts unlikely to be collected should not be overstated in value.

坏账和坏账准备是期末关键调整。依据审慎性原则，预计无法收回的债务不应高估其价值。

Irrecoverable Debt Write‑off

When a specific customer’s debt is deemed uncollectible, it is written off: debit irrecoverable debts expense, credit trade receivables. This directly reduces profit in the income statement.

当特定客户的债务被认定无法收回时，予以注销：借记坏账费用，贷记应收账款。这直接减少利润表中的利润。

Allowance for Doubtful Debts

The allowance is an estimate, usually a percentage of trade receivables at the year‑end. The adjustment to the allowance is the change between the opening and closing allowances. An increase in allowance is charged as an expense; a decrease is credited back as income. WJEC often tests the double‑entry: debit income statement, credit allowance for doubtful debts (and vice versa for reduction). The net trade receivables figure shown in the statement of financial position is trade receivables minus the allowance.

坏账准备是估计值，通常按年末应收账款的一定百分比计算。调整额为期末与期初准备的差额。准备增加计入费用；准备减少则贷记为收入。WJEC 常考查会计分录：借记利润表，贷记坏账准备（减少时则相反）。财务状况表中列示的应收账款净额为应收账款减去坏账准备。

For limited companies, WJEC requires calculation of dividends and appropriation of profit. Key formulas relate to ordinary shares and preference shares.

对于有限公司，WJEC 要求计算股息和利润分配。关键公式涉及普通股和优先股。

Dividend per Share

Total Dividends ÷ Number of Issued Ordinary Shares

Preference dividends are fixed: number of preference shares × nominal value × dividend rate (e.g. 6% on £1 shares = £0.06 per share). Preference dividends must be paid before ordinary dividends. If preference shares are cumulative, any unpaid dividends accumulate and must be settled before ordinary shareholders receive anything.

优先股股息固定：优先股股数 × 面值 × 股息率（例如，6%的1英镑优先股每股股息为0.06英镑）。优先股股息须在普通股股息之前支付。若为累积优先股，未付股息将累积，并在支付普通股股息前先行结清。

Retained Earnings Movement

Closing Retained Earnings = Opening Retained Earnings + Profit After Tax – Dividends

WJEC requires students to complete an appropriation account or a statement of changes in equity showing this movement.

WJEC 要求学生填写利润分配表或权益变动表以反映该变动。

Mark‑up and margin are two ways to express the relationship between cost, profit, and selling price. Students must be able to convert between them and use incomplete records to find missing figures.

加成率和毛利率是表达成本、利润与售价之间关系的两种方式。学生须能在两者之间换算，并利用不完整记录求出缺失数据。

Mark‑up

Mark‑up = (Gross Profit ÷ Cost of Sales) × 100

If cost is £80 and mark‑up is 25%, profit is £20, selling price = £100. Mark‑up is always based on cost.

加成率始终以成本为基础。若成本为80英镑，加成率25%，则利润为20英镑，售价为100英镑。

Margin

Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Selling Price) × 100

Using the same figures, margin = £20 ÷ £100 = 20%. WJEC questions may give the margin and selling price, requiring students to calculate cost and profit. The conversion relationships are: Margin = Mark‑up ÷ (1 + Mark‑up); Mark‑up = Margin ÷ (1 – Margin).

毛利率始终以售价为基础。利用相同数据，毛利率=20%。（换算关系：毛利率=加成率/（1+加成率）；加成率=毛利率/（1-毛利率）。

Break‑even analysis helps determine the level of sales needed to cover total costs. For WJEC, candidates must be able to calculate break‑even point in units and revenue, construct a break‑even chart, and interpret margin of safety.

盈亏平衡分析有助于确定覆盖总成本所需的销售水平。WJEC 要求考生能计算以数量及金额表示的盈亏平衡点，绘制盈亏平衡图并解释安全边际。

Contribution per Unit

Contribution = Selling Price per Unit – Variable Cost per Unit

Contribution is the amount each unit sold contributes towards fixed costs and profit. Total contribution = contribution per unit × number of units sold.

单位贡献毛益是每销售一单位产品对固定成本和利润的贡献额。总贡献毛益 = 单位贡献毛益 × 销售数量。

Break‑even Point (Units)

BEP (units) = Total Fixed Costs ÷ Contribution per Unit

Break‑even Revenue

BEP (£) = BEP (units) × Selling Price per Unit

Or: Total Fixed Costs ÷ (Contribution ÷ Selling Price) × Selling Price.

Margin of Safety

Margin of Safety (units) = Actual or Budgeted Sales Units – BEP Units

Expressed as a percentage: (Margin of Safety ÷ Actual Sales) × 100. A higher margin of safety indicates lower risk. Students should note that break‑even analysis assumes costs are strictly classified as fixed or variable, which may not hold at extreme output levels.

安全边际（数量）= 实际或预算销售量 – 盈亏平衡点销售量。以百分比表示：（安全边际 ÷ 实际销售量）×100%。安全边际越高，风险越低。需注意，盈亏平衡分析假设成本严格划分为固定和变动，这在极端产量水平下可能不成立。

These ratios assess how efficiently a business uses its resources beyond stock and receivables. WJEC includes asset turnover in some past papers.

这些比率评估企业在存货与应收账款之外的资源运用效率。WJEC 曾在以往试卷中考查资产周转率。

Non‑current Asset Turnover

Asset Turnover = Revenue ÷ Net Book Value of Non‑current Assets

This measures how many pounds of sales are generated per pound invested in fixed assets. A rising ratio suggests improving efficiency. Compare with previous years and similar businesses.

衡量每英镑固定资产投入所产出的销售收入。比率上升表明效率提升。应与往年及同类企业比较。

Total Asset Turnover

Total Asset Turnover = Revenue ÷ Total Assets

This broader measure reflects all assets. Interpretation is similar to non‑current asset turnover but includes current asset intensity.

这一更广泛的指标反映了全部资产。解释方法类似，但涵盖了流动资产的影响。

Partnership accounts require proper division of profit and interest on capital, drawings, and salaries. While no single formula exists, the appropriation follows a strict sequence.

合伙账目要求对利润、资本利息、提款利息和薪金进行恰当分配。虽然没有单一公式，但分配遵循严格顺序。

Appropriation sequence: Net profit → Add interest on drawings → Less interest on capital → Less partners’ salaries → Share residual profit in profit‑sharing ratio

Interest on capital = capital balance × agreed rate. Interest on drawings = drawings × rate × average period (if quarterly, 4.5/12). WJEC may provide a table or require an appropriation statement.

资本利息 = 资本余额 × 约定利率。提款利息 = 提款额 × 利率 × 平均期间（若为季度提款，则乘以4.5/12）。WJEC 可能提供表格或要求编制利润分配表。

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