Year 13 Cambridge Politics: Key Terms Quick Memory Guide | 剑桥政治关键术语速记指南

📚 Year 13 Cambridge Politics: Key Terms Quick Memory Guide | 剑桥政治关键术语速记指南

Mastering political terminology is essential for success in the Cambridge International A Level Politics course. This guide consolidates the most important concepts, ideologies, and institutional terms tested in the syllabus, providing concise bilingual explanations for rapid revision and memorisation. Each entry is designed to clarify meaning, context, and comparative significance, helping you navigate exam questions with confidence.

掌握政治术语对在剑桥国际A Level政治课程中取得成功至关重要。本指南整合了教学大纲中最核心的概念、意识形态和制度性术语，提供简明扼要的双语解释，便于快速复习和记忆。每个词条都旨在厘清含义、背景和比较意义，帮助您自信地应对考试题目。

1. Power, Authority and Legitimacy | 权力、权威与合法性

Power: The capacity of an individual or group to influence or determine the behaviour of others, often despite resistance. It may be exercised through coercion, material reward, or control of information and institutions. In politics, understanding power is fundamental to analysing relationships between states, social classes, and governing elites.

权力：个人或团体影响或决定他人行为的能力，通常不顾阻力。权力可通过强制、物质奖励或对信息和制度的控制来行使。在政治学中，理解权力是分析国家间、社会阶层间及统治精英间关系的基础。

Authority: The right to exercise power, based on consent and perceived legitimacy rather than mere force. Authority implies a moral or legal justification recognised by those over whom it is exercised. Without authority, governments risk instability, as coercion alone rarely secures long-term compliance.

权威：行使权力的权利，基于同意和公认的合法性，而非仅仅武力。权威意味着享有道德或法律上的正当理由，并为被统治者所承认。没有权威，政府就有不稳定的风险，因为仅靠强制难以确保长期服从。

Legitimacy: The belief among citizens that a governing authority has the right to rule. Max Weber identified three ideal types of legitimacy: traditional (based on custom), charismatic (based on personal devotion), and legal-rational (based on established law and procedure). Legitimacy is crucial for political order and reduces the need for repression.

合法性：公民相信统治当局有权统治的信念。马克斯·韦伯提出了三种理想类型的合法性：传统型（基于习俗）、魅力型（基于个人献身）和法理型（基于既定法律和程序）。合法性对政治秩序至关重要，并能减少镇压的需要。

Hegemony: Domination by one social group or state over others, achieved not merely through force but through cultural and ideological leadership. The Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci argued that ruling classes maintain control by shaping values and norms so that existing arrangements appear natural and common sense.

霸权：一个社会集团或国家对其他集团的支配，不仅通过武力，还通过文化和意识形态领导来实现。意大利马克思主义者葛兰西认为，统治阶级通过塑造价值观和规范来维持控制，使现有秩序看起来自然而然、不言而喻。

Hard Power and Soft Power: Coined by Joseph Nye, hard power refers to the use of military and economic means to coerce or influence other actors, while soft power is the ability to shape preferences through attraction, culture, political values, and foreign policies. Effective global actors often combine both in ‘smart power’ strategies.

硬实力与软实力：由约瑟夫·奈提出，硬实力指使用军事和经济手段强制或影响他者，而软实力是通过文化、政治价值观和外交政策等吸引力来塑造偏好的能力。有效的全球行为体常将两者结合，形成”巧实力”战略。

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2. The State, Nation and Sovereignty | 国家、民族与主权

State: A defined territory with a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. It holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within its borders, as defined by Max Weber. The modern state system emerged with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

国家：拥有明确领土、常住人口、政府并能与其他国家缔结关系的实体。根据马克斯·韦伯，国家在其疆界内垄断合法的武力使用权。现代国家体系于1648年《威斯特伐利亚和约》后出现。

Nation: A group of people who share a common identity based on culture, language, history, or ethnicity, and often aspire to political self-determination. A nation is not necessarily the same as a state; many nations exist within multi-national states or across several states.

民族：基于文化、语言、历史或种族等共同身份，并常追求政治自决的人群。民族不一定等同于国家；许多民族存在于多民族国家内部，或跨越多个国家。

Nation-state: A political entity in which the boundaries of a state and a nation largely coincide. In reality, few pure nation-states exist, as most states contain multiple national groups. The ideal is central to nationalism and often drives demands for independence or unification.

民族国家：国家疆界与民族范围大体一致的政治实体。现实中，纯粹的单一民族国家极少，因为大多数国家包含多个民族群体。这一理想是民族主义的核心，常驱动独立或统一诉求。

Sovereignty: The supreme authority of a state to govern itself without external interference. Internal sovereignty refers to the power to make and enforce laws within its territory; external sovereignty refers to recognition by other states and the right to conduct foreign affairs. Globalisation and international law increasingly challenge traditional sovereignty.

主权：国家不受外部干涉进行自治的最高权力。对内主权指在其领土内制定和执行法律的权力；对外主权指获得其他国家的承认及处理外交事务的权利。全球化和国际法日益挑战传统主权观念。

Stateless nation: A nation that lacks a sovereign territory of its own, such as the Kurds or Palestinians. Stateless nations often mount irredentist or separatist movements to achieve statehood, which can lead to prolonged conflict and debates over self-determination in international politics.

无国家民族：缺乏自身主权领土的民族，如库尔德人或巴勒斯坦人。无国家民族常发起领土收复或分离运动以谋求建国，这可能导致长期冲突，并在国际政治中引发关于自决权的辩论。

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3. Democracy and Representation | 民主与代表

Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which citizens make policy decisions themselves, rather than through elected representatives. Examples include referendums, initiatives, and town meetings. While it maximises participation, it is often impractical on a large scale and can lead to majoritarian tyranny if unprotected by constitutional limits.

直接民主：公民直接制定政策决策，而非通过民选代表的民主形式。例如全民公决、公民投票和市民会议。直接民主最大化了参与，但在大规模下常不实际，若无宪法限制保护，可能导致多数暴政。

Representative democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf, usually within a framework of periodic free and fair elections, universal adult suffrage, and civil liberties. Most modern democracies are representative, balancing efficiency with accountability through electoral mandates.

代议制民主：公民选举代表代为决策，通常在定期自由公正选举、成人普选权和公民自由的框架内。多数现代民主国家为代议制，通过选举授权在效率与问责之间取得平衡。

Liberal democracy: A system combining representative democracy with constitutional liberalism, which includes the protection of individual rights, rule of law, and separation of powers. Key features are free media, independent judiciary, and limits on government power to prevent the abuse of majority rule.

自由民主制：结合代议制民主与宪政自由主义的体制，包括保护个人权利、法治和权力分立。关键特征有自由媒体、独立司法和对政府权力的限制，以防止多数统治被滥用。

Accountability: The obligation of those in power to explain and justify their decisions to the public, and to be subject to sanctions if they fail. Mechanisms include elections, parliamentary scrutiny, judicial review, and free media. Accountability is essential for democratic legitimacy and prevents arbitrary governance.

问责性：掌权者对其决策向公众解释、辩护并在失职时承受制裁的义务。机制包括选举、议会质询、司法审查和新闻自由。问责性对于民主合法性必不可少，并可防止专断治理。

Referendum: A direct vote by the electorate on a specific issue, often of constitutional significance. While referendums can enhance popular sovereignty, they may oversimplify complex questions, be manipulated by populist leaders, and create tensions with representative institutions as seen in the Brexit vote.

全民公决：选民就某一具体议题（常具宪法重要性）进行的直接投票。全民公决虽能增强人民主权，但可能将复杂问题过度简化、被民粹领袖操纵，并如脱欧投票所示，与代议机构产生张力。

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4. Core Ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism | 核心意识形态：自由主义、保守主义、社会主义

Classical liberalism: Rooted in Enlightenment thought, it emphasises individual liberty, limited government, free markets, and the protection of natural rights. Key thinkers include John Locke and Adam Smith. It advocates for negative freedom – freedom from interference – and constitutional constraints on state power.

古典自由主义：植根于启蒙思想，强调个人自由、有限政府、自由市场和保护自然权利。主要思想家有洛克和亚当·斯密。它主张消极自由——免于干涉的自由——以及宪法对国家权力的制约。

Modern liberalism: Also known as social or progressive liberalism, it accepts a more active state to promote equality of opportunity and social justice. Thinkers like T.H. Green and John Rawls argue for positive freedom – the ability to realise one’s potential – and endorse welfare states and intervention to correct market failures.

现代自由主义：亦称社会或进步自由主义，接受国家更积极的作用以促进机会平等和社会正义。格林和罗尔斯等思想家主张积极自由——实现个人潜能的能力——并赞同福利国家和干预以纠正市场失灵。

Traditional conservatism: Defends established institutions, hierarchy, and authority, believing that society is a fragile organic entity that should evolve slowly. Edmund Burke emphasised the importance of tradition, experience, and gradual reform to preserve social order against radical change.

传统保守主义：捍卫既有制度、等级和权威，认为社会是一个脆弱的有机体，应缓慢演进。埃德蒙·伯克强调传统、经验和渐进改革的重要性，以维护社会秩序，反对激进变革。

One-nation conservatism: A paternalistic strand of conservatism associated with Benjamin Disraeli, which argues that the wealthy and ruling elite have a moral duty to care for the poor, thereby reducing class divisions and preserving national unity. It supports moderate welfare and state intervention to maintain social cohesion.

一国保守主义：一种家长式保守主义分支，与迪斯累利相关，主张富人和统治精英有道德义务照顾穷人，从而减少阶级分化、维护国家统一。它支持温和的福利和国家干预以维持社会凝聚力。

Socialism (Marxism): Based on the ideas of Karl Marx, it critiques capitalism as a system of class exploitation and predicts its eventual replacement by a classless communist society. Proponents advocate collective ownership of the means of production and the abolition of private property to end alienation and inequality.

社会主义（马克思主义）：基于马克思的思想，批判资本主义是阶级剥削体系，并预言其终将被无阶级的共产主义社会取代。倡导者主张生产资料集体所有制和废除私有财产，以终结异化与不平等。

Social democracy: A moderate, reformist form of socialism that seeks to achieve socialist goals through democratic means, not revolution. It combines a capitalist economy with a strong welfare state, progressive taxation, and strong labour rights. The Nordic model is often cited as an example.

社会民主主义：一种温和、改良的社会主义形式，谋求通过民主手段而非革命实现社会主义目标。它结合资本主义经济与强福利国家、累进税制和有力的劳工权利。北欧模式常被引为范例。

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5. Additional Political Ideologies | 其他政治意识形态

Anarchism: A ideology that rejects all forms of coercive authority, including the state, and advocates for a society based on voluntary cooperation. Collectivist anarchists like Bakunin emphasise communal ownership; individualist anarchists such as Stirner prize absolute personal autonomy. Anarchism is often examined as an optional ideology in the Cambridge syllabus.

无政府主义：一种拒绝包括国家在内一切强制权威、倡导基于自愿合作社会的意识形态。集体无政府主义者如巴枯宁强调公社所有制；个人无政府主义者如施蒂纳崇尚绝对个人自主。无政府主义常作为剑桥大纲的可选意识形态考查。

Feminism: A diverse movement seeking gender equality by challenging patriarchal structures. Liberal feminists advocate legal and political reforms (equal rights); radical feminists see patriarchy as a system of male domination requiring fundamental social transformation; socialist feminists link women’s oppression to capitalism and class structures.

女权主义：一个多元运动，旨在通过挑战父权制结构实现性别平等。自由派女权主义者主张法律政治改革（平等权利）；激进女权主义者认为父权制是男性支配系统，需根本社会变革；社会主义女权主义者将妇女压迫与资本主义及阶级结构相联系。

Nationalism: A political doctrine that the nation should be the central principle of political organisation and that nations have the right to self-determination. Civic nationalism defines the nation in terms of shared values and citizenship; ethnic nationalism bases it on common ancestry and culture. The latter can lead to exclusionary and expansionist policies.

民族主义：一种政治信条，主张民族应是政治组织的中心原则，且民族拥有自决权。公民民族主义以共享价值观和公民身份来界定民族；族裔民族主义则以共同血统和文化为基础。后者可能导致排外和扩张政策。

Ecologism: Places ecology at the centre of political thought, arguing that human survival depends on living within the Earth’s natural limits. Shallow ecologists seek to reform existing industrial society through regulation and green technology; deep ecologists call for a radical shift towards biocentric equality and a reduced human footprint.

生态主义：将生态置于政治思想中心，主张人类生存依赖于在地球自然界限内生活。浅层生态主义者试图通过监管和绿色技术改革现存的工业社会；深层生态主义者则呼吁向生物中心平等和减少人类足迹的根本转变。

Multiculturalism: A political ideology that celebrates cultural diversity and seeks to ensure equal rights and recognition for minority groups within a single state. It often involves policies such as legal exemptions, dual language education, and affirmative action. Critics argue it can undermine social cohesion and shared national identity.

多元文化主义：一种颂扬文化多样性、力求在单一国家内确保少数群体平等权利和承认的政治意识形态。常涉及法律豁免、双语教育和平权措施等政策。批评者认为它可能削弱社会凝聚力和共同的民族认同。

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6. UK Political Institutions and Processes | 英国政治制度与过程

Parliamentary sovereignty: The doctrine that the UK Parliament is the supreme legal authority, capable of making or repealing any law, and that no body can override its legislation. Though traditionally absolute, it has been constrained in practice by EU membership, devolution, and human rights law, and its future remains a key constitutional debate.

议会主权：英国议会是最高法律权威，能制定或废除任何法律，且没有任何机构可推翻其立法的原则。虽然传统上绝对，但实际上受到欧盟成员身份、权力下放和人权法的限制，其未来仍是重要的宪政辩论议题。

Prime Minister and Cabinet: The PM is the head of government, chairing the Cabinet and directing policy. Collective ministerial responsibility requires ministers to publicly support all government decisions or resign; individual ministerial responsibility holds ministers

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