📚 Year 13 Edexcel Computer Science: Terminology & Vocabulary Rapid Revision Guide | Year 13 Edexcel 计算机：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary of A-Level Computer Science is half the battle won. This guide organises key Year 13 Edexcel terms into 10 thematic clusters, each with paired English explanations and Chinese translations. Use it for active recall, self‑quizzing, and last‑minute revision before your exam.
掌握 A-Level 计算机科学的技术词汇，考试就成功了一半。本指南将 Year 13 Edexcel 的关键术语整理成 10 个主题板块，每个板块均配有英文解释和中文翻译。你可以用它进行主动回忆、自我测试和考前突击记忆。
1. Data Representation & Storage | 数据表示与存储
Two’s complement is the method for representing signed integers in binary, where the most significant bit indicates the sign and negative values are obtained by inverting bits and adding one.
二进制补码 是用二进制表示有符号整数的方法，最高有效位表示符号，负数通过“逐位取反再加一”得到。
Floating point representation stores real numbers in the form mantissa × 2exponent, with a trade‑off between range and precision. Normalisation ensures a leading bit of 1 for maximum precision.
浮点表示 以 尾数 × 2指数 的形式存储实数，需要在范围和精度之间权衡。规范化保证首位为 1，以获得最大精度。
Unicode is a character set that assigns a unique code point to every character from all major writing systems, using encodings like UTF‑8 to maintain compatibility with ASCII.
Unicode 是一种字符集，为所有主要书写系统的每个字符分配唯一的码点，并使用 UTF‑8 等编码以保持与 ASCII 兼容。
Sample rate is the number of samples taken per second when converting analogue sound to digital; the Nyquist theorem says it must be at least twice the highest frequency.
采样率 是将模拟声音转换为数字信号时每秒采样的次数；奈奎斯特定理要求采样率至少为最高频率的两倍。
2. Computer Architecture & Fetch‑Execute | 计算机体系结构与取指执行
Von Neumann architecture uses a single shared memory for both instructions and data, leading to the Von Neumann bottleneck. The Harvard architecture separates instruction and data memory for parallel access.
冯·诺依曼架构 对指令和数据使用同一共享内存，导致冯·诺依曼瓶颈。哈佛架构 则将指令内存和数据内存分开，实现并行访问。
Pipelining overlaps the stages of instruction execution (fetch, decode, execute) so that multiple instructions are processed simultaneously. Hazards—data, control, and structural—can stall the pipeline.
流水线 将指令执行阶段（取指、译码、执行）重叠，使得多条指令同时被处理。数据冒险、控制冒险和结构冒险会导致流水线停顿。
CISC vs RISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers have many versatile instructions, often with variable length; Reduced Instruction Set Computers use a small set of simple, fixed‑length instructions that execute in one clock cycle.
CISC 与 RISC：复杂指令集计算机有许多功能强大的指令，往往变长；精简指令集计算机使用少量简单、定长的指令，通常在一个时钟周期内执行。
Interrupts are signals that cause the processor to suspend the current task, store its state on the stack, and execute an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
中断 是导致处理器暂停当前任务、将状态压入栈并执行中断服务程序（ISR）的信号。
3. Operating Systems & Resource Management | 操作系统与资源管理
Virtual memory uses a portion of secondary storage as if it were RAM, swapping pages between disk and memory. A page table maps virtual addresses to physical frames, and a page fault occurs when a required page is not in RAM.
虚拟内存 将一部分二级存储当作 RAM 使用，在磁盘和内存之间交换页面。页表 将虚拟地址映射到物理页面，缺页故障 在所需页面不在 RAM 中时发生。
Scheduling algorithms determine which process gets the CPU. Round‑robin gives each a time quantum; shortest job first minimises waiting time; multi‑level feedback queues adapt to process behaviour.
调度算法 决定哪个进程获得 CPU。轮转调度为每个进程分配时间片；最短作业优先减少等待时间；多级反馈队列根据进程行为自适应调整。
Deadlock arises when processes hold resources and wait for others, causing a circular wait. Prevention requires breaking one of the four Coffman conditions—mutual exclusion, hold‑and‑wait, no preemption, circular wait.
死锁 当进程持有资源并等待其他资源时发生，形成循环等待。预防死锁需要打破 Coffman 四个条件之一：互斥、持有并等待、不可抢占、循环等待。
4. Networks & Communication | 网络与通信
TCP/IP stack consists of four layers: Application (HTTP, SMTP), Transport (TCP, UDP), Internet (IP), and Link. TCP provides a reliable, connection‑oriented service; UDP is connectionless with lower overhead.
TCP/IP 协议栈 包括四层：应用层（HTTP、SMTP）、传输层（TCP、UDP）、互联层（IP）和链路层。TCP 提供可靠的、面向连接的服务；UDP 无连接，开销更低。
Packet switching breaks data into packets that travel independently across a network and are reassembled at the destination. Each packet contains a header with source and destination addresses.
分组交换 将数据分割成独立传输的数据包，在目的地重新组装。每个数据包包含带有源地址和目的地址的包头。
Network Address Translation (NAT) allows multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address. A firewall filters incoming and outgoing traffic based on predefined rules.
网络地址转换 (NAT) 允许多个私有网络设备共享一个公共 IP 地址。防火墙 根据预定义规则过滤进出流量。
Public key cryptography uses a key pair: the public key encrypts data, and only the matching private key can decrypt it. This underpins digital signatures and HTTPS.
公钥加密 使用密钥对：公钥加密数据，只有匹配的私钥才能解密。它是数字签名和 HTTPS 的基础。
5. Databases & SQL | 数据库与 SQL
Normalisation is the process of organising data to reduce redundancy. First Normal Form (1NF) eliminates repeating groups; 2NF removes partial dependencies on composite keys; 3NF removes transitive dependencies.
规范化 是组织数据以减少冗余的过程。第一范式（1NF）消除重复组；2NF 消除对复合键的部分依赖；3NF 消除传递依赖。
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) ensures reliable transaction processing. Referential integrity guarantees that a foreign key value always points to an existing primary key.
ACID（原子性、一致性、隔离性、持久性）确保可靠的事务处理。引用完整性 保证外键值始终指向现有的主键。
Indexes speed up data retrieval but slow down data modification. A primary key uniquely identifies each record; a composite key consists of two or more columns.
索引 加速数据检索，但会减慢数据修改。主键 唯一标识每条记录；复合键 由两个或更多列组成。
6. Data Structures & Abstract Data Types | 数据结构与抽象数据类型
A stack is a LIFO structure with push and pop operations; a queue is FIFO with enqueue and dequeue. A priority queue dequeues the element with the highest priority.
栈 是一种后进先出（LIFO）结构，有入栈和出栈操作；队列 是先进先出（FIFO），有入队和出队操作。优先队列 出队优先级最高的元素。
A linked list consists of nodes storing data and a pointer to the next node; it allows O(1) insertion but O(n) access. A doubly linked list has prev and next pointers.
链表 由存储数据和指向下一节点指针的节点组成；插入为 O(1)，但访问为 O(n)。双向链表 有前驱和后继指针。
A hash table maps keys to array indices using a hash function. Collisions are resolved by open addressing or separate chaining. Load factor determines when to rehash.
哈希表 使用哈希函数将键映射到数组索引。冲突 通过开放寻址或链接法解决。负载因子 决定了何时进行再哈希。
A binary search tree keeps smaller values in the left subtree; balanced trees like AVL and Red‑Black trees ensure O(log n) operations by maintaining height balance.
二叉搜索树 将较小值放在左子树；平衡树 如 AVL 树和红黑树通过维持高度平衡确保 O(log n) 操作。
7. Algorithms & Complexity | 算法与复杂度
Big O notation describes the upper bound of an algorithm’s running time, ignoring constants. O(n²) for bubble sort, O(n log n) for merge sort, and O(1) for hash table access (best case).
大 O 符号 描述算法运行时间的上界，忽略常数。冒泡排序 O(n²)，归并排序 O(n log n)，哈希表访问 O(1)（最佳情况）。
Depth‑first search (DFS) uses a stack to explore as far as possible along each branch; breadth‑first search (BFS) uses a queue to explore neighbours level by level.
深度优先搜索 (DFS) 使用栈，尽量沿每个分支深入；广度优先搜索 (BFS) 使用队列，逐层探索邻居。
Dijkstra’s algorithm finds the shortest path in a weighted graph with non‑negative edges. A* search combines BFS with a heuristic to guide the search toward the goal.
Dijkstra 算法 在非负边权的加权图中寻找最短路径。A* 搜索 结合 BFS 和启发式函数，引导搜索方向。
Recursion solves a problem by calling itself with a simpler input. A base case stops the recursion, and the call stack stores return addresses. Recursion can be replaced by iteration using an explicit stack.
递归 通过用更简单输入调用自身来解决问题。基线条件终止递归，调用栈存储返回地址。递归可以用显式栈替代，转化为迭代。
8. Programming Paradigms & Languages | 编程范式与语言
Object‑oriented programming (OOP) organises software around classes and objects. Encapsulation hides state; inheritance allows code reuse; polymorphism enables one interface to be used for a general class of actions.
面向对象编程 (OOP) 围绕类和对象组织软件。封装 隐藏状态；继承 实现代码复用；多态 允许一个接口用于各类动作。
Functional programming treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions, avoiding mutable state. Key concepts: first‑class functions, higher‑order functions, recursion, and immutability.
函数式编程 将计算视为数学函数的求值，避免可变状态。关键概念：头等函数、高阶函数、递归和不可变性。
Declarative vs. Imperative: declarative (SQL, HTML) specifies what to achieve; imperative (C, Python) specifies how to achieve it. Domain‑Specific Languages (DSLs) are tailored to a specific problem domain.
声明式与命令式：声明式（SQL、HTML）指定做什么；命令式（C、Python）指定怎么做。领域特定语言 (DSL) 针对特定问题领域设计。
Compilation translates source code into machine code before execution; interpretation executes code line‑by‑line. Bytecode (e.g., Java) is compiled to an intermediate form that runs on a virtual machine.
编译 在执行前将源代码翻译成机器码；解释 逐行执行代码。字节码（如 Java）被编译为中间形式，运行在虚拟机上。
9. Computational Theory & Automata | 计算理论与自动机
A finite state machine (FSM) consists of a set of states, inputs, and transitions. Mealy machines produce outputs on transitions; Moore machines produce outputs in states. FSMs are used in lexical analysis and protocol design.
有限状态机 (FSM) 由一组状态、输入和转换组成。Mealy 机 在转换时产生输出；Moore 机 在状态中产生输出。FSM 用于词法分析和协议设计。
Regular expressions describe patterns that define regular languages. Operations include concatenation, union (|), and Kleene star (*). A context‑free grammar uses production rules to generate strings for a push‑down automaton.
正则表达式 描述定义正则语言的模式。操作包括连接、并集（|）和 Kleene 星号（*）。上下文无关文法 通过产生式规则为下推自动机生成字符串。
Turing machine is an abstract model of computation with an infinite tape, a read/write head, and a set of rules. It defines the limits of computability—the halting problem is undecidable.
图灵机 是一种抽象计算模型，拥有无限长纸带、读写头和一组规则。它定义了可计算性的极限——停机问题 是不可判定的。
Polynomial time (P) problems can be solved in O(nk) time; NP problems can be verified in polynomial time but not necessarily solved quickly. NP‑completeness includes the hardest problems in NP, such as the travelling salesman decision problem.
多项式时间 (P) 问题可以在 O(nk) 时间内求解；NP 问题可以在多项式时间内验证，但不一定能快速求解。NP 完全性 包含 NP 中最难的问题，如旅行商决策问题。
10. Software Development & Testing | 软件开发与测试
Agile methodology emphasises iterative development, frequent delivery, and collaboration. Scrum uses sprints, daily stand‑ups, and a product backlog. Waterfall follows a linear sequence: requirements → design → implementation → testing → maintenance.
敏捷方法 强调迭代开发、频繁交付和协作。Scrum 采用冲刺、每日站会和产品待办列表。瀑布模型 遵循线性顺序：需求 → 设计 → 实现 → 测试 → 维护。
Unit testing tests individual components; integration testing checks module interactions; system testing evaluates the complete system. Alpha testing is internal; beta testing involves real users.
单元测试 测试独立组件；集成测试 检查模块交互；系统测试 评估完整系统。Alpha 测试 在内部进行；Beta 测试 涉及真实用户。
Black‑box testing focuses on inputs and outputs without knowledge of internal code. White‑box testing examines paths, branches, and statements inside the code. Boundary value analysis tests limits of input ranges.
黑盒测试 关注输入和输出，无需了解内部代码。白盒测试 检查代码内部的路径、分支和语句。边界值分析 测试输入范围的极限值。
Version control (e.g., Git) tracks changes, supports branching and merging, and enables collaborative development. A commit records a snapshot; merge conflict occurs when changes clash.
版本控制（如 Git）跟踪变更，支持分支与合并，实现协同开发。提交 记录一次快照；合并冲突 在更改冲突时发生。
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