📚 Year 13 CCEA Sociology: Key Terminology Memory Guide | CCEA 社会学核心术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is the foundation for high marks in CCEA Year 13 Sociology. This guide breaks down essential concepts with clear definitions, memorable explanations, and practical examples drawn from core topics such as theory, stratification, education, family, crime, research methods, culture, globalisation, and power. Each term is presented in a bilingual paired format to reinforce understanding and speed up revision.
掌握社会学专业术语是在 CCEA Year 13 社会学考试中取得高分的基础。本指南拆解核心概念，提供清晰的定义、便于记忆的解释以及来自理论、分层、教育、家庭、犯罪、研究方法、文化、全球化与权力等核心专题的实例。每个术语均以中英配对形式呈现，以加深理解并加速复习。
1. Theoretical Perspectives | 理论视角
Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and solidarity. Key thinkers include Durkheim and Parsons, who emphasised value consensus and the organic analogy.
功能主义将社会视为由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分共同维持稳定与团结。主要思想家包括迪尔凯姆和帕森斯，他们强调价值共识和有机体类比。
Marxism is a conflict theory arguing that society is divided by class exploitation. The bourgeoisie own the means of production, while the proletariat are exploited, leading to class consciousness and eventual revolution.
马克思主义是一种冲突理论，认为社会因阶级剥削而分裂。资产阶级拥有生产资料，无产阶级受剥削，由此产生阶级意识并最终导致革命。
Feminism highlights gender inequality and patriarchy. Liberal feminists seek legal reforms, radical feminists focus on patriarchy as a system of male dominance, and Marxist feminists link women’s oppression to capitalism.
女权主义凸显性别不平等与父权制。自由派女权主义者寻求法律改革，激进女权主义者关注作为男性支配体系的父权制，马克思主义女权主义者则将女性压迫与资本主义相联系。
Interactionism focuses on small-scale, face-to-face interactions and the meanings individuals attach to actions. Labelling theory, developed by Becker, shows how deviance is socially constructed through labels.
互动论关注小规模、面对面的互动以及个体赋予行为的意义。贝克尔提出的标签理论揭示了越轨行为如何通过标签被社会建构。
Postmodernism rejects grand narratives and argues that society is fragmented, media-saturated, and characterised by hyperreality. Baudrillard’s concept of simulacra suggests that images have replaced reality.
后现代主义拒绝宏大叙事，认为社会是碎片化、媒体饱和并具有超现实特征。鲍德里亚的拟像概念表明，影像已经取代了现实。
2. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on wealth, status, and power. It can be open, allowing mobility, or closed, as in caste systems.
社会分层指根据财富、地位和权力将个体进行等级排列。分层可以是开放的，允许流动，也可以是封闭的，如种姓制度。
Life chances, a concept introduced by Weber, describe the opportunities an individual has to achieve desirable outcomes, influenced by class position, gender, and ethnicity.
生活机会是韦伯提出的概念，描述个体获得合意结果的机会，受阶级地位、性别和族群影响。
Meritocracy is the idea that social positions are achieved through talent and effort rather than ascribed characteristics. Functionalists argue education promotes meritocracy, but Marxists see it as a myth that legitimates inequality.
贤能主义认为社会地位是通过才能和努力获得的，而非先赋特征。功能主义者认为教育促进贤能主义，但马克思主义者视其为合法化不平等的迷思。
Cultural capital, developed by Bourdieu, includes knowledge, language, attitudes, and tastes that give the middle class an advantage in education and wider society.
布迪厄提出的文化资本包括知识、语言、态度和品味，这些给予中产阶级在教育和更广泛社会中的优势。
Relative poverty is defined in relation to the living standards of the majority in a given society. It is separate from absolute poverty, which refers to a lack of basic necessities.
相对贫困是与特定社会大多数人生活水平相比较而定义的。它与绝对贫困不同，绝对贫困指缺乏基本生活必需品。
3. Education | 教育
The hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons, values, and norms taught in schools, such as punctuality, obedience, and acceptance of hierarchy, which prepare pupils for the workforce.
隐性课程指在学校中教授的非正式课程、价值观和规范，如守时、服从和接受等级制度，为劳动力队伍做好准备。
Material deprivation is the lack of physical resources like income, housing, and educational materials, which negatively impacts a pupil’s attainment and creates a link between poverty and underachievement.
物质剥夺指缺乏收入、住房和学习资料等物质资源，这对学生的学业成就产生负面影响，并造成贫困与学业不佳之间的联系。
Labelling in schools occurs when teachers attach positive or negative labels to students based on stereotypes. This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where pupils internalise the label and perform accordingly.
学校中的标签现象发生在教师基于刻板印象给学生贴上积极或消极标签时。这可能导致自证预言，学生内化标签并相应地表现。
Ethnocentric curriculum describes an educational curriculum that prioritises the culture, history, and language of one ethnic group, marginalising minority cultures and contributing to underachievement among some ethnic groups.
种族中心课程描述了一种优先考虑一个族群文化、历史和语言的教育课程，边缘化少数族裔文化，并导致某些族群学业表现不佳。
Educational triage is a concept that likens schools to medical triage, where teachers categorise pupils into those likely to succeed, borderline cases, and hopeless cases, focusing resources on borderline students to boost league table results.
教育分诊是将学校比作医疗分诊的概念，教师把学生分为有望成功者、边缘个案和无望个案，将资源集中在边缘学生身上以提高排名表成绩。
4. Family and Households | 家庭与住户
A nuclear family consists of a married, heterosexual couple and their dependent children. Functionalists like Murdock regard it as universal and essential for social stability.
核心家庭由已婚异性夫妇及其受抚养子女组成。默多克等功能主义者认为它是普遍的，对社会稳定至关重要。
The symmetrical family, described by Willmott and Young, is one in which conjugal roles are more equal, with both partners sharing domestic work, decision-making, and leisure time.
威尔莫特和杨描述的对称家庭中，夫妻角色更为平等，双方分担家务、决策和休闲时间。
Patriarchy is a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women. Feminist sociologists use this concept to analyse family power relations.
父权制是一种男性支配、压迫和剥削女性的社会结构与实践体系。女权主义社会学家用此概念分析家庭权力关系。
Childhood as a social construction means that the experience and meaning of childhood vary across cultures and historical periods. Aries argued that childhood as a distinct phase did not exist in medieval Europe.
童年作为社会建构意味着童年的经历和意义因文化和历史时期而异。阿里耶斯认为，童年作为一个独特阶段在中世纪欧洲并不存在。
Dual burden refers to the situation where women are responsible for both paid work outside the home and unpaid domestic labour, leading to inequality in the family and stress for working mothers.
双重负担指女性既要承担家庭外的有偿工作，也要承担无偿家务劳动，导致家庭中的不平等和职业母亲的压力。
5. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance is behaviour that violates social norms and expectations. What counts as deviant varies historically and culturally; it is not an inherent quality of the act but a product of social reaction.
越轨是违反社会规范和期望的行为。什么行为被视为越轨因历史和文化而异；它不是行为的固有属性，而是社会反应的产物。
Anomie, introduced by Durkheim, describes a state of normlessness where societal rules and norms break down, often occurring during rapid social change and leading to increased deviant behaviour.
失范是迪尔凯姆提出的术语，描述一种社会规则和规范崩溃的无规范状态，常发生在快速社会变革期间，并导致越轨行为增加。
White-collar crime, defined by Sutherland, is crime committed by individuals of high social status in the course of their occupation. It includes fraud, embezzlement, and corporate offences, yet is often under-policed.
白领犯罪由萨瑟兰定义为具有较高社会地位的个人在其职业过程中实施的犯罪。包括欺诈、挪用公款和公司犯罪，但往往监管不足。
Moral panic is a concept developed by Cohen, referring to an exaggerated societal reaction to a group or behaviour seen as a threat to social values, amplified by the media and often leading to calls for tougher control.
道德恐慌是科恩提出的概念，指社会对被视作威胁社会价值观的群体或行为的夸大反应，由媒体放大并常导致要求更严格管控的呼吁。
Victimology examines the role of victims in the criminal justice process and patterns of victimisation. It shows that certain groups, such as the poor and ethnic minorities, are more likely to be victims of crime.
受害者学研究受害者在刑事司法过程中的作用以及受害模式。它表明某些群体，如穷人和少数族裔，更易成为犯罪受害者。
6. Research Methods | 研究方法
Quantitative methods involve the collection of numerical data that can be statistically analysed. Examples include structured questionnaires, official statistics, and closed-ended surveys. They are high in reliability and generalisability.
定量方法涉及收集可进行统计分析的数值数据。例子包括结构化问卷、官方统计和封闭式调查。它们具有较高的信度和普遍性。
Qualitative methods collect in-depth, non-numerical data to understand meanings, experiences, and interpretations. Methods such as unstructured interviews, participant observation, and focus groups offer high validity.
定性方法收集深入的非数值数据，以理解意义、经验和解释。非结构化访谈、参与观察和焦点小组等方法提供较高的效度。
Validity refers to the extent to which a research method measures what it claims to measure. Qualitative research often achieves high validity because it captures the richness of social life.
效度指研究方法测量其所宣称测量的事物的程度。定性研究往往具有高效度，因为它捕捉到社会生活的丰富性。
Reliability is the consistency of a research instrument or findings. If a study is reliable, it can be replicated under similar conditions and produce the same results. Quantitative methods typically yield high reliability.
信度是研究工具或发现的一致性。如果一项研究具有信度，它可以在相似条件下被复制并产生相同结果。定量方法通常产生高信度。
Triangulation is the use of two or more research methods in a single study to cross-check results and increase confidence in findings. It can combine quantitative and qualitative approaches to offset the weaknesses of each.
三角互证是在单一研究中使用两种或以上研究方法，以交叉检验结果并增加对发现的信心。它可以结合定量和定性方法，以抵消各自的弱点。
7. Culture and Identity | 文化与身份
Culture encompasses the shared norms, values, beliefs, language, and customs that characterise a society. It is learned through socialisation and constantly evolves through interaction and media.
文化包含表征一个社会的一系列共享规范、价值观、信仰、语言和习俗。它通过社会化习得，并通过互动和媒体不断演变。
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. Primary socialisation occurs in the family, while secondary socialisation takes place in schools, peer groups, and the media.
社会化是个体学习其所属社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在家庭中，次级社会化则在学校、同伴群体和媒体中进行。
Hybrid identity refers to an identity formed from the mixing and merging of multiple cultural influences, common in globalised, multicultural societies. It challenges the notion of fixed, singular identities.
混合身份指由多元文化影响混合融合而形成的身份，这在全球化、多元文化社会中很常见。它挑战了固定、单一身份的观念。
Ethnicity is a sense of belonging based on shared cultural heritage, language, religion, or history. Unlike race, ethnicity is about cultural distinctiveness rather than biological characteristics.
族群是基于共同文化遗产、语言、宗教或历史的归属感。与种族不同，族群关乎文化独特性而非生物学特征。
Stigmatised identity, a term from Goffman, refers to an identity that is devalued and discredited by society, such as being labelled mentally ill or criminal. Individuals may manage stigma through passing or information control.
污名化身份是戈夫曼提出的术语，指被社会贬低和质疑的身份，如被贴上精神病或罪犯标签。个体可能通过伪装或信息控制来管理污名。
8. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of societies across economic, political, cultural, and technological dimensions. It has led to time-space compression and transformed local cultures.
全球化是社会在经济、政治、文化和技术维度上日益增强的相互联系。它导致了时空压缩，并改变了地方文化。
McDonaldization, theorised by Ritzer, extends Weber’s rationalisation to fast-food principles: efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. It affects many social institutions globally.
麦当劳化由瑞泽尔理论化，将韦伯的理性化扩展至快餐原理：高效性、可计算性、可预测性和控制。它影响全球许多社会制度。
Cultural homogenisation is the thesis that globalisation leads to cultures becoming more alike, often adopting Western consumerist lifestyles. Critics argue it overlooks the adaptation and hybridisation of cultures.
文化同质化论认为全球化导致文化变得更相似，往往采用西方消费主义生活方式。批评者指出它忽视了文化的调适和混生。
Risk society, a concept by Beck, describes a modern society preoccupied with managing man-made risks such as environmental disasters and technological threats, which cross national boundaries and are less controllable than earlier risks.
风险社会是贝克提出的概念，描述一个专注于管理人为风险的现代社会，如环境灾害和技术威胁，这些风险跨越国界，且比早期风险更难控制。
Network society, coined by Castells, refers to a social structure powered by digital information networks that shape production, power, and experience. It shifts power from hierarchical bureaucracies to flexible networks.
网络社会由卡斯特尔创造，指由数字信息网络驱动的社会结构，塑造生产、权力和经验。它将权力从等级制官僚机构转向灵活的网络。
9. Power, Politics and the State | 权力、政治与国家
The state is a set of institutions that claims the legitimate monopoly of force and holds authority over a defined territory. It includes the government, civil service, judiciary, and military.
国家是一套声称拥有合法武力垄断权并在特定领土上行使权威的制度。它包括政府、文官系统、司法机关和军队。
Hegemony, from Gramsci, is the ideological dominance of a ruling class that secures consent from subordinate classes by shaping common-sense beliefs and values, rather than relying purely on coercion.
霸权来自葛兰西，指统治阶级通过塑造常识性信念和价值观来获取被统治阶级的同意，从而实现意识形态支配，而非纯粹依赖强制。
Pluralism is the view that political power is dispersed among numerous competing interest groups, preventing any single group from dominating. It contrasts with elite theory, which sees power concentrated in a small ruling elite.
多元主义认为政治权力分散在众多相互竞争的利益群体中，防止任何单一群体占据支配地位。它与精英理论相对，后者认为权力集中在少数统治精英手中。
Citizenship refers to the rights and duties associated with membership of a political community. Marshall identified three elements: civil, political, and social rights, which have expanded historically.
公民身份指与政治共同体成员身份关联的权利和义务。马歇尔确定了三种要素：公民权利、政治权利和社会权利，它们在历史上不断扩展。
New social movements are collective actions focused on identity, lifestyle, and quality-of-life issues (e.g. environmentalism, feminism, anti-racism), operating through decentralised networks and cultural symbolism rather than class-based organisations.
新社会运动是关注身份、生活方式和生活质量问题的集体行动（如环保主义、女权主义、反种族主义），通过去中心化网络和文化象征运作，而非以阶级为基础的组织。
10. Revision Strategies and Mnemonics | 复习策略与记忆术
Use the P.E.E.L. structure in essays: Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link. For each term, craft a short ‘definition plus example’ flashcard to solidify your recall.
在论文中使用 P.E.E.L. 结构：观点、证据、解释、联系。为每个术语制作一张“定义加例子”的闪卡，以巩固记忆。
To remember the four feminist types, use the mnemonic ‘Liar Marx Made Rad Fem’: Liberal, Marxist, Radical, and Intersectional feminisms each have distinct foci.
要记忆四种女权主义类型，可用助记句“Liar Marx Made Rad Fem”：自由派、马克思主义、激进和交叉性女权主义各有不同侧重点。
Apply the ‘sociologist-sociologist linkage’ technique: when revising a term like anomie, connect it to Merton’s strain theory and the modes of adaptation: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.
运用“社会学家关联”技巧：复习“失范”时，将其与默顿的压力理论和适应模式联系起来：遵从、创新、仪式主义、退却主义和反叛。
Compare and contrast key perspectives using a table. For example, list the family functions according to Murdock (functionalism), Zaretsky (Marxism), and Oakley (feminism) in three columns to visualise differences.
用表格比较和对比关键视角。例如，将默多克（功能主义）、扎列茨基（马克思主义）和奥克利（女权主义）关于家庭功能的观点分三列列出，直观展现差异。
Finally, practise writing concise definitions under timed conditions, and always anchor your terminology with real-world examples from contemporary UK society to demonstrate application skills.
最后，在限时条件下练习写出简洁定义，并始终将术语与当代英国社会的真实案例相结合，以展示应用能力。
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