📚 AS Cambridge Business: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | AS剑桥商务：公式定理速查手册
This comprehensive quick‑reference guide presents the essential formulas, ratios, and key theoretical models you must master for the Cambridge AS Business syllabus. Keep it at hand to reinforce your revision, practise calculations, and interpret business performance with confidence.
这份综合速查手册汇总了剑桥AS商务课程必须掌握的核心公式、比率和关键理论模型。随身查阅，强化复习，练习计算，自信解读企业业绩。
1. Break-even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
The break‑even point (BEP) shows the output level where total revenue equals total costs, resulting in zero profit or loss. It is a vital tool for planning and risk assessment.
盈亏平衡点表示总收入等于总成本时的产出水平，此时利润为零。它是规划与风险评估的重要工具。
Break-even Point (units) = Fixed Costs ÷ (Selling Price per unit − Variable Cost per unit)
盈亏平衡点（单位） = 固定成本 ÷（单位售价 − 单位变动成本）
Contribution per unit is the amount each sale contributes towards covering fixed costs and generating profit. The break‑even formula relies on the contribution margin.
单位贡献是每笔销售为覆盖固定成本和创造利润所贡献的金额。盈亏平衡公式依赖贡献边际。
Margin of safety measures the cushion before a loss occurs. It is calculated as Actual Output minus Break‑even Output, often expressed as a percentage of actual output.
安全边际衡量亏损发生前的缓冲空间。它由实际产出减去盈亏平衡产出计算得出，常以实际产出的百分比表示。
2. Cost and Profit Formulas | 成本与利润公式
Understanding cost classification and profit calculation underpins all financial decision‑making. These formulas are the building blocks of business analysis.
理解成本分类与利润计算是所有财务决策的基础。这些公式是商业分析的基石。
Total Cost = Total Fixed Costs + Total Variable Costs
总成本 = 总固定成本 + 总变动成本
Total Revenue = Selling Price × Quantity Sold
总收入 = 销售单价 × 销量
Profit = Total Revenue − Total Cost
利润 = 总收入 − 总成本
Unit cost (average cost) = Total Cost ÷ Output. It helps in pricing and comparing efficiency over time.
单位成本（平均成本） = 总成本 ÷ 产出。它有助于定价与长期效率比较。
3. Contribution and Margin Ratios | 贡献与利润率
Contribution analysis and profitability ratios reveal how efficiently a business converts sales into profit. They are central to decision‑making on product mix and pricing.
贡献分析与利润率比率揭示了企业将销售转化为利润的效率。它们是产品组合和定价决策的核心。
Contribution per Unit = Selling Price per Unit − Variable Cost per Unit
单位贡献 = 单位售价 − 单位变动成本
Total Contribution = Contribution per Unit × Quantity Sold
总贡献 = 单位贡献 × 销量
Gross Profit Margin (%) = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
毛利率（%） = （毛利润 ÷ 营业收入） × 100
Operating Profit Margin (%) = (Operating Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
营业利润率（%） = （营业利润 ÷ 营业收入） × 100
Net Profit Margin (%) = (Net Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
净利润率（%） = （净利润 ÷ 营业收入） × 100
Contribution Margin Ratio (%) = (Total Contribution ÷ Revenue) × 100
贡献利润率（%） = （总贡献 ÷ 营业收入） × 100
4. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios assess a firm’s ability to meet short‑term obligations. Strong liquidity reduces the risk of cash‑flow crises.
流动性比率衡量企业偿还短期债务的能力。良好的流动性可降低现金流危机的风险。
Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
流动比率 = 流动资产 ÷ 流动负债
Acid Test Ratio (Quick Ratio) = (Current Assets − Inventories) ÷ Current Liabilities
速动比率（酸性测试比率） = （流动资产 − 存货） ÷ 流动负债
A current ratio above 1 suggests sufficient resources, but the ideal level varies by industry. The acid test ratio gives a stricter view by excluding less liquid inventory.
流动比率大于1表明资源充足，但理想水平因行业而异。速动比率排除了流动性较差的存货，提供了更严格的视角。
5. Efficiency Ratios | 效率比率
Efficiency ratios measure how well a business manages its resources. They help identify strengths and weaknesses in working capital management and operational performance.
效率比率衡量企业资源管理的优劣。它们有助于识别营运资本管理和经营绩效中的优势与弱点。
Inventory Turnover (times) = Cost of Sales ÷ Average Inventory
存货周转次数 = 销售成本 ÷ 平均存货
Inventory Turnover (days) = (Average Inventory ÷ Cost of Sales) × 365
存货周转天数 = （平均存货 ÷ 销售成本） × 365
Trade Receivables Days (Debtor Days) = (Trade Receivables ÷ Credit Sales) × 365
应收账款周转天数 = （应收账款 ÷ 赊销收入） × 365
Trade Payables Days (Creditor Days) = (Trade Payables ÷ Credit Purchases) × 365
应付账款周转天数 = （应付账款 ÷ 赊购额） × 365
Labour productivity indicates human resource efficiency. It is often expressed as output per worker or output per labour hour.
劳动生产率表明人力资源效率。通常表示为每位员工或每工时产出。
Labour Productivity = Output per Period ÷ Number of Employees
劳动生产率 = 每期产出 ÷ 员工人数
6. Employee Performance Metrics | 员工绩效指标
Tracking employee metrics helps HR managers monitor workforce stability, morale, and cost effectiveness. These formulas are frequently examined.
追踪员工指标有助于人力资源经理监控员工队伍稳定性、士气和成本效益。这些公式常出现在考试中。
Absenteeism Rate (%) = (Number of Absence Days ÷ Total Working Days) × 100
缺勤率（%） = （缺勤天数 ÷ 总工作日数） × 100
Labour Turnover Rate (%) = (Number of Staff Leaving ÷ Average Number of Staff) × 100
员工流失率（%） = （离职人数 ÷ 平均员工人数） × 100
Other useful indicators include revenue per employee and training cost per employee, which link HR to business performance.
其他有用指标包括人均营业额和人均培训成本，它们将人力资源与经营业绩相联系。
7. Market and Sales Metrics | 市场与销售指标
Marketing formulas allow a business to evaluate its competitive position and the effectiveness of its sales strategy. They are essential for setting targets and analysing trends.
营销公式使企业能够评估其竞争地位和销售策略的有效性。它们对设定目标和分析趋势至关重要。
Market Share (%) = (Company Sales ÷ Total Market Sales) × 100
市场占有率（%） = （企业销售额 ÷ 市场总销售额） × 100
Market Growth (%) = [(Current Market Size − Previous Market Size) ÷ Previous Market Size] × 100
市场增长率（%） = [（当期市场规模 − 前期市场规模） ÷ 前期市场规模] × 100
Sales Growth (%) = [(Current Sales − Previous Sales) ÷ Previous Sales] × 100
销售增长率（%） = [（当期销售额 − 前期销售额） ÷ 前期销售额] × 100
8. Elasticity Formulas | 弹性公式
Elasticity measures the responsiveness of demand to changes in key variables. The three main types are vital for pricing and strategic decisions.
弹性衡量需求对关键变量变化的反应程度。三种主要弹性对定价和战略决策至关重要。
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) = % Change in Quantity Demanded ÷ % Change in Price
需求价格弹性 = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比
If PED > 1, demand is elastic; if PED < 1, demand is inelastic. Remember to ignore the minus sign and use absolute values.
若PED > 1，需求富有弹性；若PED < 1，需求缺乏弹性。请忽略负号并使用绝对值。
Income Elasticity of Demand (YED) = % Change in Demand ÷ % Change in Income
需求收入弹性 = 需求变化百分比 ÷ 收入变化百分比
Cross Elasticity of Demand (XED) = % Change in Demand for Good A ÷ % Change in Price of Good B
需求交叉弹性 = A商品需求变化百分比 ÷ B商品价格变化百分比
9. Investment Appraisal Techniques | 投资评估方法
Investment appraisal helps managers decide whether a capital project is worthwhile. The two basic methods required at AS are simple and powerful.
投资评估帮助管理者决定资本项目是否值得投资。AS阶段需要掌握的两种基本方法简单而有效。
Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) (%) = (Average Annual Profit ÷ Initial Investment) × 100
会计收益率（ARR）（%） = （平均年利润 ÷ 初始投资） × 100
The higher the ARR, the better the project. It is often compared with a target rate set by the firm.
ARR越高，项目越好。通常与公司设定的目标收益率相比较。
Payback Period (years) = Initial Investment ÷ Annual Net Cash Inflow (if uniform)
回收期（年） = 初始投资 ÷ 年净现金流入（若现金流均匀）
When cash inflows vary, the payback period is found by cumulating cash flows until the initial outlay is recovered. Shorter payback is preferred.
当现金流不均衡时，通过累加现金流直至收回初始支出求得回收期。回收期越短越受青睐。
10. Budgeting and Variances | 预算与差异分析
Budgets are financial plans, and variance analysis identifies differences between actual and budgeted figures. It is a key tool for financial control.
预算是财务计划，差异分析识别实际数与预算数之间的差异。这是财务控制的关键工具。
Variance = Actual Figure − Budgeted Figure
差异 = 实际数 − 预算数
A positive variance for revenue or profit is favourable (F); a positive variance for costs is adverse (A). The signs must be interpreted carefully.
收入或利润的正差异为有利差异（F）；成本的正差异为不利差异（A）。必须仔细解读符号含义。
Commonly analysed variances include sales volume variance, sales price variance, material cost variance and labour cost variance.
常分析的差异包括销量差异、售价差异、材料成本差异和人工成本差异。
11. Decision Tools: Expected Value and Decision Trees | 决策工具：期望值与决策树
When outcomes are uncertain, businesses can use expected value and decision trees to compare choices. These tools combine probability with financial data.
当结果不确定时，企业可利用期望值和决策树比较各选项。这些工具将概率与财务数据结合。
Expected Monetary Value (EMV) = Σ (Probability of Outcome × Value of Outcome)
期望货币价值 = Σ（结果概率 × 结果价值）
A decision tree maps out options, probabilities and economic consequences. The EMV of each branch is calculated to choose the option with the highest expected net gain.
决策树图示出方案、概率和经济后果。计算每个分枝的期望货币价值，选择预期净收益最高的方案。
12. Key Management Theories — Quick Reference | 关键管理理论速查
These influential theories explain motivation, leadership and organisational behaviour. They often underpin essay questions and case‑study analysis.
这些颇具影响力的理论解释了动机、领导力和组织行为。它们常常是论述题与案例分析的基础。
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Employees are motivated by five levels of needs — physiological, safety, social, esteem and self‑actualisation. Lower‑level needs must be satisfied before higher ones become motivators.
马斯洛需求层次理论： 员工受五个层次需求驱动——生理、安全、社交、尊重和自我实现。只有较低层次需求得到满足后，高层次需求才会成为激励因素。
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Herzberg’s Two‑Factor Theory: Hygiene factors (e.g. salary, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate. Motivating factors (e.g. recognition, responsibility) lead to job satisfaction and higher performance.
赫茨伯格双因素理论： 保健因素（如薪酬、工作条件）消除不满却非激励因素。激励因素（如认可、责任）带来工作满意感和更高绩效。
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Taylor’s Scientific Management: Workers are primarily motivated by money. Efficiency is achieved through division of labour, standardised tasks and piece‑rate pay systems.
泰勒科学管理理论： 工人主要受金钱激励。通过分工、标准化作业和计件工资制度实现效率。
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Mayo’s Human Relations School: Social factors, teamwork and recognition matter greatly. The Hawthorne studies showed that attention from managers improved productivity.
梅奥人际关系学派： 社交因素
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