📚 Pre-U CCEA Spanish: Formulae & Rules Quick Reference Handbook | Pre-U CCEA 西班牙语：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook compiles the essential grammar rules, verb conjugation patterns and sentence structures you must master for Pre-U CCEA Spanish. Treat each pattern as a ‘formula’ or ‘theorem’ — learn the logic, apply it consistently, and your accuracy in both written and oral examinations will improve dramatically.
本速查手册汇编了 Pre-U CCEA 西班牙语必备的语法规则、动词变位模式和句子结构。请将每一条规律都视为一条“公式”或“定理”——掌握其逻辑并稳定运用，必将显著提升你在笔试与口试中的准确性。
1. Nouns and Articles: Gender and Number Formulae | 名词与冠词：性与数公式
Every Spanish noun carries a grammatical gender: masculine or feminine. Most masculine nouns end in -o, while most feminine nouns end in -a. Exceptions exist, but the endings serve as reliable initial formulae.
每个西班牙语名词都有语法性别：阳性或阴性。大多数阳性名词以 -o 结尾，大多数阴性名词以 -a 结尾。尽管有例外，但词尾规律仍是可靠的起始公式。
The definite article must agree in gender and number with the noun: el (masc. sing.), la (fem. sing.), los (masc. pl.), las (fem. pl.). Use el before feminine singular nouns beginning with stressed a- or ha- to avoid hiatus, e.g. el agua fría.
定冠词必须在性和数上与名词一致：el（阳性单数），la（阴性单数），los（阳性复数），las（阴性复数）。在重读 a- 或 ha- 开头的阴性单数名词前用 el 以避免元音连读，如 el agua fría。
Indefinite articles follow a parallel pattern: un, una, unos, unas. The same rule about stressed a- applies: un águila veloz. Remember that plural uncountable nouns can take unos/unas to mean ‘some’ or ‘a few’.
不定冠词遵循平行模式：un, una, unos, unas。关于重读 a- 的规则同样适用：un águila veloz。注意不可数名词复数可与 unos/unas 连用，表示“一些”。
To form the plural, add -s to nouns ending in a vowel, and -es to nouns ending in a consonant. Nouns ending in -z change the z to c and add -es: luz → luces. This is a fundamental morphological formula.
构成复数时，以元音结尾的名词加 -s，以辅音结尾的名词加 -es。以 -z 结尾的名词将 z 变 c 再加 -es：luz → luces。这是一条基础的形态学公式。
2. Adjectives and Agreement: Formulae for Modification | 形容词与一致：修饰公式
Adjectives must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. The default formula: adjectives ending in -o change to -a for feminine, and add -s or -es for plural. Example: un coche rojo → unos coches rojos; una casa roja → unas casas rojas.
形容词必须与其修饰的名词在性和数上保持一致。默认公式：以 -o 结尾的形容词变为阴性时改成 -a，复数时根据情况加 -s 或 -es。例：un coche rojo → unos coches rojos; una casa roja → unas casas rojas。
Adjectives ending in -e or a consonant generally have a single form for both genders, but still mark plural: un chico inteligente → unos chicos inteligentes; una chica inteligente → unas chicas inteligentes. Adjectives of nationality ending in a consonant add -a for the feminine: un profesor inglés / una profesora inglesa.
以 -e 或辅音结尾的形容词通常不分性，但仍要配合数：un chico inteligente → unos chicos inteligentes; una chica inteligente → unas chicas inteligentes。国籍形容词若以辅音结尾，其阴性形式加 -a：un profesor inglés / una profesora inglesa。
Possessive adjectives also act as modifiers and follow short‑form placement rules: mi, tu, su, nuestro, vuestro, su. Nuestro and vuestro must agree in gender and number: nuestra casa, nuestros libros. Long forms (mío, tuyo, suyo, etc.) come after the noun and always agree fully.
物主形容词同样起修饰作用，并遵循短尾形式的位置规则：mi, tu, su, nuestro, vuestro, su。nuestro 和 vuestro 必须配合性和数：nuestra casa, nuestros libros。长尾形式（mío, tuyo, suyo 等）置于名词之后，且始终完全配合。
When multiple adjectives describe a noun, the general sequence is: quantity → quality → colour → origin → material. Adhering to this ordering formula helps produce natural‑sounding Spanish.
多个形容词修饰同一个名词时，一般顺序为：数量 → 品质 → 颜色 → 来历 → 材料。遵循这一排序公式有助于生成自然的西班牙语。
3. Regular Verb Conjugations: Core Formulae | 规则动词变位：核心公式
The backbone of Spanish grammar is verb conjugation. Regular verbs follow three infinitive‑based templates: -ar, -er and -ir. Learn these stem + ending formulae and you can generate thousands of correct forms.
西班牙语语法的支柱是动词变位。规则动词遵循三类基于不定式的模板：-ar、-er 和 -ir。掌握这些“词干 + 词尾”公式，你就能够生成数千个正确的形式。
Present indicative: -ar verb ‘hablar’ → habl- + -o, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, -an
The endings for -er verbs (e.g. comer) are: -o, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, -en. For -ir verbs (vivir): -o, -es, -e, -imos, -ís, -en. Note the nosotros forms differ between -er and -ir.
-er 动词（如 comer）的词尾为：-o, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, -en。-ir 动词（如 vivir）的词尾为：-o, -es, -e, -imos, -ís, -en。注意 nosotros 形式在 -er 和 -ir 中不同。
Preterite: -ar → -é, -aste, -ó, -amos, -asteis, -aron; -er/-ir → -í, -iste, -ió, -imos, -isteis, -ieron
The imperfect tense is another regular formula: -ar verbs take -aba, -abas, -aba, -ábamos, -abais, -aban. Both -er and -ir verbs use -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían. Stress marks must be placed accurately.
过去未完成时是另一条规则公式：-ar 动词用 -aba, -abas, -aba, -ábamos, -abais, -aban。-er 和 -ir 动词均使用 -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían。重音符号必须放置准确。
Future and conditional stems are invariable: attach the endings to the full infinitive. Future: -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án. Conditional: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían. The same stem is used for both paradigms, and irregular stems (tendr-, pondr-, etc.) are predictable.
将来时和条件式的词干是不变的：将词尾附加在整个不定式上。将来时：-é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án。条件式：-ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían。两种范式使用相同的词干，不规则词干（tendr-、pondr- 等）也是可预测的。
4. Irregular Verbs and Stem‑Changing Formulae | 不规则动词与词干变化公式
Many essential verbs deviate from the regular patterns, but their irregularities often follow systematic stem‑changing rules. Mastering the four main types (e→ie, o→ue, e→i, u→ue) allows you to predict dozens of forms.
许多核心动词偏离规则模式，但其不规则性往往遵循系统的词干变化规律。掌握四种主要类型（e→ie、o→ue、e→i、u→ue），你就能预判数十种形式。
In the present tense, stem changes occur in all persons except nosotros and vosotros. Pensar: pienso, piensas, piensa, pensamos, pensáis, piensan. Dormir: duermo, duermes, duerme, dormimos, dormís, duermen.
在现在时中，词干变化发生在除 nosotros 和 vosotros 外的所有人称。Pensar：pienso, piensas, piensa, pensamos, pensáis, piensan。Dormir：duermo, duermes, duerme, dormimos, dormís, duermen。
The preterite introduces a special set of irregular stems with distinct endings: -e, -iste, -o, -imos, -isteis, -ieron/-eron. Key irregular stems: tener → tuv-, poder → pud-, poner → pus-, hacer → hic-/hiz-, decir → dij-, conducir → conduj-.
简单过去时引入一套特殊的不规则词干，并带有独特的词尾：-e, -iste, -o, -imos, -isteis, -ieron/-eron。关键不规则词干：tener → tuv-，poder → pud-，poner → pus-，hacer → hic-/hiz-，decir → dij-，conducir → conduj-。
Ir and ser share identical preterite forms: fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron. Context resolves the meaning. Dar follows the -ar preterite endings but with an irregular stem: di, diste, dio, dimos, disteis, dieron.
ir 和 ser 在简单过去时中形式完全相同：fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron。依靠上下文区分含义。dar 使用 -ar 的简单过去时词尾，但词干不规则：di, diste, dio, dimos, disteis, dieron。
The participle and gerund forms also obey predictive irregularity patterns. Participles: abrir → abierto, decir → dicho, escribir → escrito, hacer → hecho, ver → visto. These must be memorised like fixed constants.
过去分词和副动词形式也遵循可预测的不规则模式。过去分词：abrir → abierto，decir → dicho，escribir → escrito，hacer → hecho，ver → visto。这些必须像常量一样牢记。
5. Subjunctive Mood: Formation and Triggers | 虚拟式：构成与触发条件
The subjunctive is not a tense but a mood, used to express doubt, desire, emotion, uncertainty and hypothesis. The formation formula for the present subjunctive is: take the yo form of the present indicative, drop the -o, and add the opposite endings.
虚拟式不是时态，而是一种语气，用于表达怀疑、愿望、情感、不确定性和假设。现在虚拟式的构成公式为：取陈述式现在时的 yo 形，去掉 -o，加上“相反”词尾。
-ar verbs: -e, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, -en. -er/-ir verbs: -a, -as, -a, -amos, -áis, -an.
The imperfect subjunctive is derived from the third person plural of the preterite: drop the -ron and add -ra or -se endings. Both series exist: hablara/hablase, hablaras/hablases, etc. For the exam, be consistent with one set.
过去虚拟式由简单过去时的第三人称复数衍生：去掉 -ron，加上 -ra 或 -se 两套词尾。两套形式均存在：hablara/hablase, hablaras/hablases 等。考试中应统一使用其中一套。
Subjunctive triggers fall into clear categories: WEIRDO (Wishes, Emotions, Impersonal expressions, Recommendations, Doubt/Denial, Ojalá). When the main clause contains one of these and the subject changes, the subordinate verb goes into the subjunctive.
虚拟式的触发条件可以分为明确的类别：WEIRDO（愿望、情感、无人称表达、建议、怀疑/否定、Ojalá）。当主句包含其中之一且主语变化时，从句动词即用虚拟式。
Key conjunction phrases that always demand the subjunctive: para que, a menos que, con tal de que, en caso de que, sin que, antes de que. These are like fixed connectors in a larger syntactic formula.
某些关键连词短语始终要求虚拟式：para que, a menos que, con tal de que, en caso de que, sin que, antes de que。它们在更大的句法公式中如同固定连接器。
6. Imperative and Commands: Formulae | 命令与祈使句：公式
The imperative mood is used for direct commands. Affirmative tú commands for regular verbs are simply the third person singular of the present indicative: hablar → habla, comer → come, vivir → vive. Irregular tú forms must be memorised: hacer → haz, ir → ve, decir → di, salir → sal, ser → sé, tener → ten, poner → pon, venir → ven.
命令式用于直接给出指令。规则动词的肯定 tú 命令式就是陈述式现在时的第三人称单数：hablar → habla, comer → come, vivir → vive。不规则 tú 形式须牢记：hacer → haz, ir → ve, decir → di, salir → sal, ser → sé, tener → ten, poner → pon, venir → ven。
Negative tú commands require the present subjunctive tú form: no hables, no comas, no vivas. This is a critical formula because the affirmative and negative paradigms are different for tú.
否定 tú 命令式使用现在虚拟式的 tú 形：no hables, no comas, no vivas。这是一条关键公式，因为 tú 的肯定与否定范式不同。
Usted and ustedes commands, both affirmative and negative, use the corresponding subjunctive forms: hable, no hable, hablen, no hablen. Nosotros commands (‘let’s’) also follow the subjunctive: hablemos, no hablemos, comamos. With reflexive verbs, the final -d of the affirmative vosotros imperative is dropped before adding -os: sentaos.
usted 和 ustedes 命令式无论肯定还是否定，均使用对应的虚拟式形式：hable, no hable, hablen, no hablen。nosotros 命令式（“让我们……”）同样遵循虚拟式：hablemos, no hablemos, comamos。带代词式动词时，vosotros 肯定命令式在添加 -os 之前要省去末尾的 -d：sentaos。
Pronoun attachment follows strict rules: with affirmative commands, pronouns are attached to the end, often requiring a written accent to maintain stress. With negative commands, pronouns precede the verb and remain separate words.
代词附着遵循严格规则：肯定命令式中代词附着在动词末尾，通常需要添加书面重音以保持重读位置。否定命令式中代词前置，作为独立词。
7. Pronouns: Placement and Order Rules | 代词：位置与顺序规则
Object pronouns (direct, indirect and reflexive) have a fixed order when combined: reflexive → indirect → direct, all before the conjugated verb or attached to an infinitive/gerund/affirmative command. The formula: RID (Reflexive, Indirect, Direct).
宾格代词（直接、间接、自复）组合时有固定顺序：自复 → 间接 → 直接，全部置于变位动词之前，或附着于不定式/副动词/肯定命令式。公式：RID。
When a third person indirect object pronoun (le/les) is followed by a third person direct object pronoun (lo/la/los/las), the indirect changes to ‘se’: Le doy el libro → Se lo doy. This is a compulsory phonetic shift.
当第三人称间接宾语代词（le/les）后跟第三人称直接宾语代词（lo/la/los/las）时，间接代词变为 se：Le doy el libro → Se lo doy。这是强制性的语音转换。
Prepositional pronouns are used after prepositions: mí, ti, él/ella/usted, nosotros, vosotros, ellos/ellas/ustedes. The con forms are irregular: conmigo, contigo, consigo. All other instances use the regular pattern.
前置词后使用前置词代词：mí, ti, él/ella/usted, nosotros, vosotros, ellos/ellas/ustedes。con 的形态不规则：conmigo, contigo, consigo。其余情况均使用规则模式。
Relative pronouns function as connectors in complex sentences. Que is the most versatile, quien/quienes refers to people after a preposition, and el que/la que/los que/las que provide explicit gender and number.
关系代词在复合句中起连接作用。que 最为通用，quien/quienes 位于前置词后指人，而 el que/la que/los que/las que 则明确体现了性数。
Possessive pronouns replace a noun and must agree in gender and number: el mío, la mía, los míos, las mías. The definite article is used except after ser: Este libro es mío.
物主代词替代名词，必须在性和数上配合：el mío, la mía, los míos, las mías。除在 ser 之后外，均需使用定冠词：Este libro es mío。
8. Prepositions and Their Key ‘Theorems’ | 前置词及其关键“定理”
Prepositions in Spanish frequently govern particular cases or verb complements. The ‘personal a’ theorem states that when a direct object is a specific person or a personified entity, it must be preceded by ‘a’: Vi a Juan. This does not apply after tener or for unspecified people.
西班牙语前置词常常支配特定的格或动词补语。“私人 a”定理指出，当直接宾语是特定的人或人格化实体时，必须在前面加 a：Vi a Juan。tener 之后或指称非特定人时不适用。
Por and para operate under a clear logical framework: por typically expresses cause, duration, exchange, means, and movement through space; para expresses purpose, destination, deadline, recipient, and comparison. Memorise the acronyms PERFECT (por) and PRODDS (para).
por 和 para 在清晰的逻辑框架下运作：por 通常表示原因、持续时间、交换、手段和空间穿行；para 表示目的、目的地、截止日期、接收者和比较。熟记助记口诀：PERFECT（por）和 PRODDS（para）。
Verbs that require a specific preposition form a major part of the exam syllabus. Common formulae: empezar a (+inf.), insistir en, soñar con, casarse con, depender de, pensar en, enamorarse de. Treat these verb+preposition pairs as fixed collocations.
要求特定前置词的动词是考纲的重点。常见公式：empezar a (+inf.)，insistir en，soñar con，casarse con，depender de，pensar en，enamorarse de。请将这些“动词+前置词”组合视为固定搭配。
The preposition ‘de’ expresses possession, origin, material and partitive relationships. The contraction del (de + el) is mandatory; de la, de los, de las remain separate. The same contraction rule applies to a + el → al.
前置词 de 表示所属、来源、材料和部分关系。缩合 del（de + el）是强制性的；de la, de los, de las 则保持分离。相同的缩合规则适用于 a + el → al。
9. Ser vs. Estar, Gustar and Similar: Usage Formulae | Ser 与 Estar、Gustar 类动词：使用公式
The distinction between ser and estar can be reduced to key formulae: ser is used for identity, origin, permanent characteristics, time, possession and passive voice; estar expresses location, temporary conditions, ongoing actions (gerund) and results. The acronyms DOCTOR (ser) and PLACE (estar) help recall the categories.
ser 与 estar 的区别可以归纳为核心公式：ser 用于身份、来历、永久特征、时间、所属和被动语态；estar 表示位置、暂时状态、进行中动作（副动词）和结果。助记口诀 DOCTOR（ser）和 PLACE（estar）有助于回忆类别。
Some adjectives change meaning depending on which verb is used: ser aburrido (to be boring) vs. estar aburrido (to be bored). Ser listo (clever) vs. estar listo (ready). This semantic shift functions as a predictable theorem.
某些形容词根据所用动词的不同而改变含义：ser aburrido（令人厌烦）与 estar aburrido（感到厌烦）；ser listo（聪明）与 estar listo（准备好）。这种语义转换可视为一条可预测的定理。
Verbs like gustar (gustar, encantar, interesar, importar, doler) follow an inverted syntactic pattern: the thing liked becomes the grammatical subject, and the person is expressed via an indirect object pronoun. Formula: (A mí) me gusta el libro / me gustan los libros.
gustar 类动词（gustar, encantar, interesar, importar, doler）遵循倒置的句法模式：被喜欢的事物成为语法主语，而人通过间接宾语代词表达。公式：(A mí) me gusta el libro / me gustan los libros。
When constructing these structures, remember that the verb agrees with the subject that follows. With an infinitive or a clause, use the singular form: Me gusta bailar. With plural nouns, use the plural: Me gustan las playas.
构建这类结构时，切记动词与后随的主语保持数的一致。若主语为不定式或从句，使用单数形式：Me gusta bailar。若为复数名词，则用复数：Me gustan las playas。
10. Conditional Sentences and Impersonal Se | 条件句与非人称 Se
Conditional sentences (if-clauses) are built on three principal formulas. Type 1 (real): Si + present indicative → present/future/imperative: Si estudias, aprobarás. Type 2 (unlikely/imaginary): Si + imperfect subjunctive → conditional: Si estudiaras, aprobarías.
条件句（if 从句）基于三种主要公式建构。第一类（真实条件）：Si + 陈述式现在时 → 现在时/将来时/命令式：Si estudias, aprobarás。第二类（不太可能/假想）：Si + 过去虚拟式 → 条件式：Si estudiaras, aprobarías。
Type 3 (impossible past): Si + pluperfect subjunctive → conditional perfect: Si hubieras estudiado, habrías aprobado. The sequence of tenses must be rigorously observed; mixing is accepted only in specific colloquial contexts but penalised in formal writing.
第三类（过去不可能）：Si + 过去完成虚拟式 → 条件完成式：Si hubieras estudiado, habrías aprobado。时态呼应必须严格执行；混合使用仅在特定口语语境下可接受，但在正式书写中会扣分。
The impersonal ‘se’ is a versatile structure used for general statements, passive-like meanings and unplanned events. The passive se formula: Se + third-person verb (singular/plural) + subject: Se venden coches. The impersonal se uses only the singular: Se vive bien aquí.
非人称 se 是一个多功能结构，用于泛指陈述、类被动含义和非计划性事件。被动 se 公式：Se + 第三人称动词（单/复数）+ 主语：Se venden coches。非人称 se 只用单数：Se vive bien aquí。
For accidental or unplanned occurrences, the structure is: Se + indirect object pronoun + verb (third person) + subject: Se me olvidaron las llaves. This formula removes culpability and is extremely common in spoken Spanish.
对于意外或非计划性事件，结构为：Se + 间接宾语代词 + 动词（第三人称）+ 主语：Se me olvidaron las llaves。这一公式消解了责任归属，在西班牙语口语中极为常见。
Practice transforming active sentences into impersonal se constructions to gain flexibility. For example, ‘You can find many restaurants here’ becomes ‘Se pueden encontrar muchos restaurantes aquí’. Notice the verb agreement with the subject ‘restaurantes’.
练习将主动句转换为非人称 se 结构可以增强语言灵活性。例如，“You can find many restaurants here”变为“Se pueden encontrar muchos restaurantes aquí”。注意动词与主语 restaurantes 保持一致。
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