📚 Pre-U WJEC Psychology: Key Terms & Memory Hacks | Pre-U WJEC 心理学：核心术语速记指南
Mastering psychological terminology is the first step to excelling in Pre-U WJEC Psychology. This guide presents essential terms organised by topic, each accompanied by a clear definition and a memorable trick to lock it into your long-term memory.
掌握心理学术语是在 Pre-U WJEC 心理学中取得优异成绩的第一步。本指南按主题整理核心术语，每个术语都配有清晰的释义和巧妙的速记诀窍，帮你把概念牢牢刻进长期记忆里。
1. Research Methodology & Ethics | 研究方法与伦理
The following terms form the backbone of any psychological investigation. They help you describe how studies are designed and why ethical standards matter.
以下术语是任何心理学研究的骨架。它们帮助你描述研究如何设计，以及为什么伦理标准如此重要。
Independent variable (IV) is the factor that the researcher deliberately manipulates or changes to observe its effect on another variable.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者有意操纵或改变的因素，目的是观察它对另一个变量的影响。记忆诀窍：IV stands for ‘I vary’。
Dependent variable (DV) is the outcome that is measured; it is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the IV.
因变量 (DV) 是被测量的结果；它的变化被认为是由自变量的操纵引起的。记忆诀窍：DV stands for ‘Data Value’ you collect.
Operationalisation means defining variables in precise, measurable terms so that they can be objectively tested. For example, ‘aggression’ might be operationalised as the number of times a child hits a doll.
操作化是指用精确、可测量的方式定义变量，以便进行客观检验。例如，’攻击性’可以操作化为孩子击打玩偶的次数。记忆诀窍：Think ‘operation’ – make it work in a study.
Extraneous variables are any variables other than the IV that could influence the DV if not controlled, such as noise, temperature, or participant mood.
额外变量是除了自变量之外可能影响因变量的任何变量，如噪音、温度或参与者情绪。记忆诀窍：Extra = unwanted extras that must be controlled.
Demand characteristics refer to cues in an experiment that might reveal the research aims to participants, causing them to change their behaviour.
要求特征是指实验中可能向参与者透露研究目的的线索，导致他们改变行为。记忆诀窍：Participants ‘demand’ to know the aim and then act accordingly.
Ethical issues include informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and the right to withdraw. Researchers must follow BPS guidelines to ensure participants’ wellbeing.
伦理问题包括知情同意、欺骗、避免伤害和退出权。研究者必须遵守英国心理学会 (BPS) 指导方针，保障参与者福祉。记忆诀窍：Remember ‘Can Do With’ – Consent, Deception, Withdrawal.
2. Biological Psychology Basics | 生物心理学基础
Biological psychology links behaviour to brain structures, neurotransmitters, and physiological processes. These terms are crucial for understanding the biological basis of behaviour.
生物心理学将行为与大脑结构、神经递质和生理过程联系起来。这些术语对理解行为的生物学基础至关重要。
A neuron is a nerve cell that transmits electrical and chemical signals throughout the nervous system. It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
神经元是传递电信号和化学信号的神经细胞，包含细胞体、树突和轴突。记忆诀窍：Imagine a tree – dendrites receive, axon sends.
The synapse is the tiny gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another, where neurotransmitters are released.
突触是一个神经元终扣与另一个神经元树突之间的微小间隙，神经递质在此处释放。记忆诀窍：Synaptic ‘space’ where signals jump.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers, such as serotonin, dopamine, and acetylcholine, that cross the synapse to transmit signals.
神经递质是化学信使，如血清素、多巴胺和乙酰胆碱，它们跨越突触传递信号。记忆诀窍：Think of them as tiny postmen delivering mood mail.
Action potential is the brief electrical charge that travels down the axon when a neuron fires, following the all-or-none principle.
动作电位是神经元发放时沿轴突传导的短暂电脉冲，遵循全或无原则。记忆诀窍：Like a toilet flush – once triggered, it goes all the way.
Localisation of function refers to the idea that specific brain areas are responsible for particular tasks. Broca’s area is linked to speech production, while Wernicke’s area is involved in language comprehension.
功能定位指特定大脑区域负责特定任务。布罗卡区负责言语表达，韦尼克区负责语言理解。记忆诀窍：Broca = Broken speech (expressive), Wernicke = Wordy but meaningless (receptive).
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation, creating images of active brain regions during tasks.
fMRI (功能性磁共振成像) 通过检测血氧变化测量脑活动，生成任务中活跃脑区的图像。记忆诀窍：’f’ is for function – shows brain at work.
3. Cognitive Approaches to Memory | 认知记忆理论
Cognitive psychology explores internal mental processes. Memory models are core to Pre-U WJEC, and you must know their components and critiques.
认知心理学探究内部心理过程。记忆模型是 Pre-U WJEC 的核心，你必须掌握其组成和批评。
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) proposes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves via attention and rehearsal.
多存储模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin) 提出三个独立存储库：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述流动。记忆诀窍：Think of a library: sensory is the doorway, STM is the desk, LTM is the stacks.
Coding, capacity, and duration differ across stores. STM codes acoustically, has a capacity of 7±2 items, and duration of about 18–30 seconds. LTM codes semantically with potentially unlimited capacity and duration.
编码、容量和持续时间在各存储库中不同。STM 以听觉编码为主，容量为 7±2 个组块，持续时间约 18-30 秒。LTM 以语义编码，容量和持续时间可能无限。记忆诀窍：STM – small and sound; LTM – large and meaningful.
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch) replaces a unitary STM with a system comprising the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
工作记忆模型 (Baddeley & Hitch) 用包含中央执行器、语音回路、视空间画板和情节缓冲器的系统取代了单一的 STM。记忆诀窍：Imagine your mind’s office – a boss (central executive) with assistants handling speech and vision.
Types of long-term memory include episodic (personal events), semantic (facts and knowledge), and procedural (skills and actions). Tulving argued these operate independently.
长时记忆类型包括情景记忆 (个人事件)、语义记忆 (事实知识) 和程序性记忆 (技能动作)。Tulving 认为它们独立运作。记忆诀窍：Episodic = episodes of your life; semantic = encyclopedia; procedural = riding a bike.
4. Social Influence & Obedience | 社会影响与服从
This area examines how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are shaped by others. Key terms cover conformity, obedience, and resistance to influence.
该领域考察个体的思维、情感和行为如何受他人影响。关键术语涵盖从众、服从和抵制影响。
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Informational social influence occurs when one adopts the group’s view because they believe the group is right.
从众是由于真实或想象群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。信息性社会影响发生在个体因为相信群体正确而接受群体观点时。记忆诀窍：Informational = ‘I need information to be correct’.
Normative social influence leads to conformity because the individual wants to fit in, be liked, or avoid rejection.
规范性社会影响导致从众，因为个体希望融入、被喜欢或避免拒绝。记忆诀窍：Normative = normal to want to belong.
Asch’s line study demonstrated conformity to a unanimous majority even when the answer was clearly wrong. The presence of an ally dramatically reduced conformity.
Asch 的线段实验表明，即使答案明显错误，被试仍会从众于一致多数。有一个同盟者显著降低了从众率。记忆诀窍：Asch = ‘Ask’ the group and you may follow the crowd.
Obedience is compliance with an authority figure’s direct instruction. Milgram’s electric shock study revealed high obedience levels when participants were ordered to harm a learner.
服从是对权威人物直接指令的遵守。Milgram 的电击实验显示，当被命令伤害学习者时，参与者表现出高服从水平。记忆诀窍：Milgram = ‘Mill’ions of volts you’d give under authority.
The agentic state is a mental state in which individuals see themselves as agents executing the wishes of an authority, thus absolving themselves of personal responsibility.
代理状态是一种心理状态，个体视自己为执行权威意愿的代理，从而免除个人责任。记忆诀窍：Agentic = acting as an agent for someone else.
5. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋理论
Attachment theory explains the emotional bond between infant and caregiver. These terms are essential for understanding social and emotional development.
依恋理论阐释婴儿与照顾者之间的情感纽带。这些术语对于理解社会和情感发展必不可少。
Attachment is a strong, reciprocal emotional bond that provides comfort and security, typically formed in the first two years of life.
依恋是一种强烈、互惠的情感纽带，提供安慰和安全感，通常在生命头两年形成。记忆诀窍：Attach = ‘a tie that attaches’ infant to caregiver.
Stranger anxiety is distress shown by an infant when approached by an unfamiliar person; it emerges around 8 months.
陌生人焦虑是婴儿在陌生人靠近时表现出的痛苦；大约在 8 个月时出现。记忆诀窍：Stranger = danger alarm.
Separation anxiety is distress triggered by the absence of the primary caregiver, peaking at around 14 months.
分离焦虑是因主要照顾者离开而引发的痛苦，约 14 个月时达到顶峰。记忆诀窍：Separation = upset at separation.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation identified three attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A), and insecure-resistant (Type C). Secure infants explore freely with the caregiver as a secure base.
Ainsworth 的陌生情境法识别了三种依恋类型：安全型 (B)、不安全-回避型 (A) 和不安全-反抗型 (C)。安全型婴儿以照顾者为安全基地自由探索。记忆诀窍：B = balanced; A = avoids; C = clings and cries.
The internal working model is a mental representation of relationships based on early attachment experiences, influencing future relationships and parenting.
内部工作模型是基于早期依恋经验的心理关系表征，影响未来的关系和养育行为。记忆诀窍：It’s a ‘working’ blueprint for love.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis states that prolonged separation from the mother during the critical period (first 2.5 years) causes irreversible emotional and social damage.
Bowlby 的母性剥夺假说指出，在关键期 (头 2.5 年) 中与母亲长期分离会造成不可逆的情感和社会损害。记忆诀窍：Deprivation = deprived of mother, developmental damage.
6. Individual Differences: Personality & Abnormality | 个体差异：人格与异常
This topic investigates how people differ in personality and what it means to be ‘abnormal’. Definitions and models are vital for Pre-U WJEC essays.
本主题探究人格差异以及’异常’的含义。定义和模型对 Pre-U WJEC 论文写作至关重要。
Eysenck’s PEN model describes three higher-order personality dimensions: Psychoticism (aggressive, cold), Extraversion (sociable, lively), and Neuroticism (anxious, moody).
Eysenck 的 PEN 模型描述了三个高阶人格维度：精神质 (攻击性、冷漠)、外倾性 (好交际、活跃) 和神经质 (焦虑、情绪化)。记忆诀窍：PEN = ‘Pen’ Eysenck used to write the model.
Psychoticism was later added as a trait associated with being tough-minded, impersonal, and prone to hostility.
精神质是后来增加的维度，与强硬、冷漠和敌意倾向相关。记忆诀窍：Psychoticism = psychopathic traits in non-clinical form.
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is numerically rare and falls outside the normal distribution curve, e.g., an IQ below 70 or above 130.
统计罕有率将异常定义为数字上稀少且落在正态分布曲线之外的行为，例如 IQ 低于 70 或高于 130。记忆诀窍：If it’s statistically unusual, it’s labelled abnormal.
Deviation from social norms views behaviour as abnormal if it violates the unwritten rules of society. However, norms change over time and across cultures.
偏离社会规范将违反社会不成文规则的行为视为异常。但规范随时间和文化而变化。记忆诀窍：Breaking the norm = abnormal, but norms shift.
Failure to function adequately (FFA) identifies abnormality when a person is unable to cope with everyday life demands, such as maintaining hygiene, holding a job, or forming relationships. Rosenhan & Seligman proposed seven features including personal distress.
无法充分运作 (FFA) 将个人无法应对日常生活需求视为异常，例如无法保持卫生、工作或建立关系。Rosenhan & Seligman 提出了包括个人痛苦在内的七项特征。记忆诀窍：FFA = failing at life basics.
Deviation from ideal mental health (Jahoda) defines abnormality by absence of six criteria for ideal mental health, such as positive self-attitude, autonomy, and accurate perception of reality.
偏离理想心理健康 (Jahoda) 通过缺乏六项理想心理健康标准来定义异常，如积极自我态度、自主性和现实准确知觉。记忆诀窍：Remember PRAISE – Positive self-attitude, Resistance to stress, Autonomy, etc.
7. The Psychodynamic Perspective | 心理动力学视角
Freud’s psychodynamic approach emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Mastering the tripartite personality and defence mechanisms is essential.
弗洛伊德的心理动力学取向强调无意识和童年经验的影响。掌握人格三分结构和防御机制至关重要。
The id is the primitive, instinctual part of the personality operating on the pleasure principle; it demands immediate gratification of needs.
本我是人格中最原始、本能的部分，遵循快乐原则，要求即时满足需求。记忆诀窍：Id = ‘It’ – the demanding baby inside you.
The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external world, operating on the reality principle. It uses rational thinking to delay gratification.
自我在发展过程中调节不现实的本我和外部世界，遵循现实原则。它运用理性思考延迟满足。记忆诀窍：Ego = ‘I’ – the realistic manager.
The superego embodies the moral standards internalised from parents and society, operating on the morality principle. It causes guilt when its standards are violated.
超我包含从父母和社会内化的道德标准，遵循道德原则。当违反其标准时，它引发内疚感。记忆诀窍：Superego = ‘super-moral’ guardian.
Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and superego. Repression pushes threatening memories into the unconscious.
防御机制是自我用来减少本我与超我冲突引起焦虑的无意识策略。压抑将威胁性记忆推入无意识。记忆诀窍：Repression = pressing feelings down.
Denial is refusing to accept reality because it is too painful. Displacement redirects impulses onto a safer target, e.g., kicking a dog after being scolded by a boss.
否认是拒绝接受现实因为它太痛苦。转移是把冲动重新指向更安全的目标，比如被老板斥责后踢狗。记忆诀窍：Denial = saying ‘no’ to the truth; Displacement = shifting the anger.
The Oedipus complex occurs in the phallic stage when a boy unconsciously desires his mother and views his father as a rival; identification with the father resolves this conflict.
俄狄浦斯情结发生在性器期，男孩无意识地渴望母亲并将父亲视为情敌；通过与父亲认同解决这一冲突。记忆诀窍：Oedipus = a Greek tragedy – boy loves mother, hates father.
8. Behaviourist & Learning Theories | 行为主义与学习理论
Learning theories focus on observable behaviour acquired through conditioning or observation. You must be able to apply these terms to real-world scenarios.
学习理论强调通过条件作用或观察获得的习得行为。你必须能够将这些术语应用于现实场景。
Classical conditioning (Pavlov) involves learning by association. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally triggers an unconditioned response (UCR). After repeated pairing with a neutral stimulus (NS), the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).
经典条件作用 (巴甫洛夫) 涉及通过联想学习。非条件刺激 (UCS) 自然引发非条件反应 (UCR)。通过与中性刺激 (NS) 反复配对，NS 变成条件刺激 (CS)，引发条件反应 (CR)。记忆诀窍：UCS -> UCR is the unlearned link; after conditioning, CS -> CR is the learned link. Think of food (UCS) -> salivation (UCR); bell (CS) -> salivation (CR).
Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, leading to a decline in the CR. Spontaneous recovery is the sudden reappearance of the CR after a rest period.
消退是当 CS 反复呈现而不伴随 UCS 时，CR 逐渐减弱的现象。自发恢复是休息一段时间后 CR 的突然重现。记忆诀窍：Extinction = CR fades; but it can pop back (spontaneous recovery).
Operant conditioning (Skinner) is learning by consequences. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour.
操作性条件作用 (斯金纳) 是通过后果学习。正强化增加愉快刺激以提高行为频率；负强化移除不愉快刺激以提高行为频率。记忆诀窍：Positive = adding something good; Negative = taking away something bad. Both strengthen behaviour, not punish.
Punishment aims to decrease a behaviour. Positive punishment adds something aversive (e.g., scolding); negative punishment removes something pleasant (e.g., confiscating a phone).
惩罚旨在减少行为。正惩罚增加厌恶刺激 (如责骂)；负惩罚移除愉快刺激 (如没收手机)。记忆诀窍：Punishment always weakens behaviour.
Social learning theory (Bandura) emphasizes learning through observation and imitation. Modelling occurs when an observer imitates a model’s behaviour. Vicarious reinforcement happens when the observer sees the model being rewarded, increasing the likelihood of imitation.
社会学习理论 (班杜拉) 强调通过观察和模仿学习。示范指观察者模仿榜样的行为。替代强化发生在观察者看到榜样得到奖赏时，这会增加模仿的可能性。记忆诀窍：Vicarious = learning by watching others get rewards or punishments.
Mediational processes are cognitive factors that intervene between stimulus and response in observational learning: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation (ARRM).
中介过程是观察学习中介于刺激与反应之间的认知因素：注意、保持、动作再现和动机 (ARRM)。记忆诀窍：ARRM – Attention (watch), Retention (remember), Reproduction (do), Motivation (want to).
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