📚 Data: Its Representation, Structure and Management | 数据：表示、结构与管理
In modern sport, data is collected every second: GPS trackers record speed and distance, heart-rate monitors capture physiological load, and video analysts tag technical and tactical actions. This chapter examines how such data is represented in binary form, organised into suitable structures, stored in files and databases, and managed to ensure accuracy, security and usability.
在现代体育中，数据每秒都在被采集：GPS 追踪器记录速度与距离，心率监测仪捕捉生理负荷，视频分析师标注技术与战术动作。本章考察这些数据如何以二进制形式表示，如何组织成合适的数据结构，如何存储在文件与数据库中，以及如何管理以确保准确性、安全性和可用性。
1. Data Types and Sources in Sport | 体育中的数据类型与来源
Sport data can be classified as qualitative or quantitative, and further as discrete or continuous. For example, a referee’s decision is qualitative categorical data, a shot count is discrete quantitative data, and a runner’s 100 m time is continuous quantitative data.
体育数据可分为定性数据和定量数据，并进一步分为离散型与连续型。例如，裁判的判罚是定性分类数据，射门次数是离散定量数据，而运动员 100 米成绩是连续定量数据。
Common sources include wearable sensors, timing gates, force plates, video tracking, and laboratory tests such as VO₂ max or blood lactate measurement. Each source produces raw values that must be cleaned and coded before analysis.
常见来源包括可穿戴传感器、计时门、测力台、视频追踪，以及最大摄氧量（VO₂ max）或血乳酸测量等实验室测试。每个来源都会产生原始数值，这些数值在分析之前必须经过清洗和编码。
2. Number Systems and Binary Representation | 数制与二进制表示
Computers store all data as binary digits (bits), where each bit is 0 or 1. A group of 8 bits forms a byte, which can represent 2⁸ = 256 different values. Larger collections such as kilobytes, megabytes and gigabytes are just multiples of bytes.
计算机将所有数据存储为二进制数字（bit），每个 bit 为 0 或 1。8 个 bit 组成一个字节（byte），可表示 2⁸ = 256 个不同值。更大的单位如千字节、兆字节和吉字节都只是字节的倍数。
2⁸ = 256 values per byte
Decimal integers can be converted to binary by repeated division by 2. For example, 13₁₀ = 1101₂ because 13 = 8 + 4 + 1. Hexadecimal (base 16) is used as a compact form, with symbols 0-9 and A-F, so a byte can be shown as two hex digits, such as 00101101₂ = 2D₁₆.
十进制整数可以通过不断除以 2 转换为二进制。例如 13₁₀ = 1101₂，因为 13 = 8 + 4 + 1。十六进制（基数为 16）用作紧凑表示，使用符号 0-9 和 A-F，因此一个字节可表示为两个十六进制数字，例如 00101101₂ = 2D₁₆。
Text characters are represented by standard codes such as ASCII or Unicode. When a video system stores player names, each character is converted into a binary code so it can be saved and retrieved consistently.
文本字符通过 ASCII 或 Unicode 等标准代码表示。当视频系统存储球员姓名时，每个字符都会被转换为二进制代码，以便一致地保存和检索。
3. Units, Precision and Measurement Scales | 单位、精度与测量尺度
Sports data must be recorded with correct SI units, such as metres (m), seconds (s), kilograms (kg), and derived units like metres per second (m/s) or watts per kilogram (W/kg). Consistent units allow fair comparison between athletes and across sessions.
体育数据必须使用正确的国际单位制（SI）单位记录，如米（m）、秒（s）、千克（kg），以及米每秒（m/s）或瓦特每千克（W/kg）等导出单位。统一单位才能在不同运动员和不同训练课之间进行公平比较。
Measurement scales include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Race positions are ordinal; temperature in degrees Celsius is interval; jump distance is ratio because it has a true zero. Selecting the correct scale determines which statistical operations are meaningful.
测量尺度包括名义、顺序、等距和比率尺度。比赛名次是顺序尺度；摄氏温度是等距尺度；跳跃距离是比率尺度，因为它有真实零点。选择正确的尺度决定了哪些统计运算是有意义的。
Precision refers to the number of digits stored, while accuracy refers to how close a reading is to the true value. A GPS unit may show speed to 0.1 km/h precision but still be inaccurate by ±0.5 km/h, so both concepts must be reported in sport science.
精度指存储的数字位数，而准确度指读数与真实值的接近程度。GPS 设备可能以 0.1 km/h 的精度显示速度，但仍可能有 ±0.5 km/h 的误差，因此在运动科学中必须同时报告这两个概念。
4. Data Structures: Arrays and Lists | 数据结构：数组与列表
An array is a fixed-size collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory. A team’s 11 sprint times could be held in a one-dimensional array indexed from 0 to 10, allowing direct access to any element by its index.
数组是固定大小、相同数据类型的元素集合，存储在连续内存中。一支球队 11 名队员的冲刺时间可以存放在索引为 0 到 10 的一维数组中，从而可以通过索引直接访问任何元素。
sprint_time[0], sprint_time[1], … , sprint_time[10]
Lists are dynamic structures that can grow or shrink as new data arrives. A linked list stores each value together with a pointer to the next item, allowing efficient insertion and deletion without shifting all subsequent elements in memory.
列表是动态结构，可以随着新数据的到来而增长或缩短。链表将每个值与指向下一项的指针一起存储，无需移动内存中所有后续元素即可高效插入和删除。
5. Stacks, Queues and Linked Lists | 栈、队列与链表
A stack is a Last In First Out (LIFO) structure. In sport software, an undo command in a video tagging tool might use a stack to reverse the most recent action, because the last tag added is the first removed.
栈是后进先出（LIFO）结构。在体育软件中，视频标注工具中的撤销命令可能使用栈来撤销最近一次操作，因为最后添加的标注最先被移除。
A queue is First In First Out (FIFO). Athletes entering a testing station, or requests waiting for server processing, form a queue so the first arrival is served first.
队列是先进先出（FIFO）。运动员进入检测站或等待服务器处理的请求形成队列，因此第一个到达者最先得到服务。
Linked lists may be singly or doubly linked. A doubly linked list allows navigation both forwards and backwards, which is useful in performance video timelines when a coach moves frame by frame through a match.
链表可以是单向或双向。双向链表允许向前和向后导航，这在运动表现视频时间轴中非常有用，教练可以逐帧浏览比赛录像。
6. Trees and Graphs in Performance Analysis | 树与图在表现分析中的应用
A tree is a hierarchical structure with a root node, branches and leaves. Tournament brackets are natural trees: the root is the final, intermediate nodes are semi-finals and quarter-finals, and leaves are first-round matches.
树是具有根节点、分支和叶节点的层次结构。锦标赛对阵图天然就是树：根节点是决赛，中间节点是半决赛和四分之一决赛，叶节点是第一轮比赛。
A graph consists of vertices connected by edges and can model passing networks in football, where vertices are players and edges are passes between them. Weighted edges can represent the number of passes, helping analysts identify key links.
图由通过边连接的顶点组成，可以模拟足球中的传球网络，其中顶点是球员，边是球员之间的传球。加权边可以表示传球次数，帮助分析师识别关键联系。
7. File Organisation and Storage Media | 文件组织与存储介质
File organisation methods include serial, sequential, indexed sequential and direct/random access. A match log written as events occur is serial; a sorted database of athlete IDs uses indexed sequential access for fast retrieval by key.
文件组织方法包括串行、顺序、索引顺序和直接/随机存取。事件发生时写入的比赛日志是串行；排序后的运动员 ID 数据库使用索引顺序存取以便按键快速检索。
Storage media range from magnetic hard drives and solid-state drives to cloud storage. Choosing media depends on capacity, speed, durability, portability and cost. For example, a stadium performance lab might use fast SSDs, while long-term backups go to cloud storage.
存储介质包括磁性硬盘、固态硬盘到云存储。介质的选择取决于容量、速度、耐用性、便携性和成本。例如，体育场表现实验室可能使用快速的固态硬盘，而长期备份则存入云存储。
8. Database Concepts: Tables, Keys and Relationships | 数据库概念：表、键与关系
A relational database organises data into tables of rows (records) and columns (fields). An athlete table may store athlete_id, name, date_of_birth and squad. Each row represents one athlete, and each column stores one attribute.
关系数据库将数据组织成由行（记录）和列（字段）构成的表。运动员表可以存储 athlete_id、姓名、出生日期和队伍。每行代表一名运动员，每列存储一个属性。
| athlete_id | name | date_of_birth | squad |
|---|---|---|---|
| 001 | Alex Chen | 2005-04-12 | U19 |
| 002 | Mia Lopez | 2004-11-03 | U21 |
A primary key uniquely identifies each record, such as athlete_id. A foreign key in a performance table links results back to the athlete, creating a one-to-many relationship between one athlete and many test results.
主键唯一标识每条记录，例如 athlete_id。成绩表中的外键将结果链接回运动员，在一名运动员与多条测试结果之间形成一对多关系。
9. Data Validation and Verification | 数据验证与校验
Validation checks whether data is reasonable before it enters the system. Range checks ensure a heart rate is between 30 and 250 bpm; format checks ensure a time is entered as mm:ss.ff; presence checks prevent missing athlete IDs.
验证在数据进入系统之前检查数据是否合理。范围检查确保心率在 30 到 250 bpm 之间；格式检查确保时间以 mm:ss.ff 格式输入；存在性检查防止缺失运动员 ID。
Verification checks that data has been entered or copied correctly, for example by double entry or visual checking of a printed start list. Validation and verification together reduce errors that could affect selection or injury decisions.
校验检查数据是否被正确输入或复制，例如通过双重录入或目视检查打印的出发名单。验证和校验共同减少可能影响选拔或伤病决策的错误。
10. Data Security, Privacy and Integrity | 数据安全、隐私与完整性
Athlete data is personal and sensitive, so access should be controlled by passwords, user roles and encryption. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and similar laws require consent and purpose limitation when handling health and performance data.
运动员数据具有个人性和敏感性，因此应通过密码、用户角色和加密控制访问。《通用数据保护条例》（GDPR）及类似法律在处理健康和运动表现数据时要求获得同意并限制使用目的。
Data integrity means data remains accurate and consistent over its life cycle. Backup copies, checksums, and transaction logging help prevent accidental loss, corruption or unauthorised modification.
数据完整性指数据在其生命周期内保持准确和一致。备份副本、校验和以及事务日志有助于防止意外丢失、损坏或未经授权的修改。
11. Data Management and Governance in Sport | 体育中的数据管理与治理
Effective data management requires clear policies on data ownership, retention, sharing and deletion. A sports science team should define who can view injury data, how long it is kept, and what happens when an athlete leaves the club.
有效的数据管理需要关于数据所有权、保留、共享和删除的明确政策。运动科学团队应定义谁可以查看伤病数据、数据保留多长时间，以及运动员离开俱乐部后数据如何处理。
Data quality is maintained through standard operating procedures, regular audits and staff training. This reduces errors in load monitoring and selection decisions, and builds trust among coaches, medical staff and athletes.
数据质量通过标准操作程序、定期审计和人员培训来维持。这可以减少负荷监测和选拔决策中的错误
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