📚 Interest Groups in the USA | 美国利益集团
Interest groups are a central feature of the US political system. They provide citizens with a way to influence public policy between elections, and they shape debates on issues from healthcare to gun rights.
利益集团是美国政治体系的一个核心特征。它们为公民提供了一种在选举间歇影响公共政策的途径，并在医疗保健、枪支权利等问题上塑造辩论。
1. Defining Interest Groups | 利益集团的定义
An interest group is an organised body that seeks to influence public policy without standing for election. Unlike political parties, interest groups do not usually aim to win office; they focus on changing the decisions of those who do hold power.
利益集团是有组织的团体，旨在不参加竞选的情况下影响公共政策。与政党不同，利益集团通常不以赢得公职为目标；它们专注于改变掌权者的决策。
In US politics this definition covers a wide range of organisations, from large membership associations such as the AARP to professional lobbyists working for corporations or unions.
在美国政治中，这一定义涵盖范围广泛，从美国退休人员协会等大型会员组织，到为企业和工会工作的专业说客。
2. Types of Interest Groups | 利益集团的类型
Economic interest groups represent business, labour, agriculture and professions. Examples include the US Chamber of Commerce, the American Federation of Labour-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) and the American Medical Association.
经济利益集团代表商界、劳工、农业和专业人士。例子包括美国商会、美国劳工联合会—产业工会联合会（AFL-CIO）和美国医学会。
Citizen or public interest groups claim to represent the broader public good rather than a narrow economic interest. Groups such as Common Cause or the Sierra Club focus on government reform and environmental protection.
公民或公共利益集团声称代表更广泛的公共利益，而不是狭隘的经济利益。像共同事业组织或塞拉俱乐部这样的团体专注于政府改革和环境保护。
Single-issue groups concentrate on one policy area, such as the National Rifle Association on gun rights or the National Abortion Rights Action League on reproductive rights.
单一议题集团集中于一个政策领域，例如全国步枪协会关注枪支权利，全国堕胎权利行动联盟关注生育权利。
3. Functions of Interest Groups | 利益集团的功能
Interest groups perform several key functions in a democracy. They represent members and supporters, giving them a voice in Washington and in state capitals.
利益集团在民主制度中发挥若干关键功能。它们代表成员和支持者，让他们在华盛顿和各州首府拥有发言权。
They also educate the public and policymakers by providing research, statistics and expert testimony. This information can improve the quality of legislation.
它们还通过提供研究、统计数据和专家证词来教育公众和决策者。这些信息可以提高立法质量。
Interest groups encourage political participation, helping citizens to donate, volunteer, contact officials and vote. They also hold government accountable by monitoring policy implementation.
利益集团鼓励政治参与，帮助公民捐款、做志愿者、联系官员和投票。它们还通过监督政策执行来问责政府。
4. Methods and Tactics | 方法与策略
The most visible method is lobbying, in which paid professionals meet with legislators and executive officials to argue for a particular policy position.
最明显的方法是游说，即受雇的专业人员与立法者和行政官员会面，为特定政策立场进行辩护。
Interest groups also use electioneering to support or oppose candidates through campaign contributions, endorsements and independent spending. This gives them access to policymakers after elections.
利益集团还通过竞选活动，利用竞选捐款、背书和独立支出来支持或反对候选人。这使他们在选举后能够接触决策者。
Grassroots mobilisation encourages ordinary supporters to contact their representatives through emails, phone calls, protests and social media campaigns. Litigation is also used to challenge laws or to force government action.
草根动员鼓励普通支持者通过电子邮件、电话、抗议和社交媒体活动联系他们的代表。诉讼也被用来挑战法律或迫使政府采取行动。
5. Lobbying Congress and the Executive | 游说国会与行政部门
Lobbyists target Congress by supplying draft bills, technical expertise and information about constituency effects. They often testify at committee hearings and help build coalitions of members around a bill.
说客通过提供法案草案、技术专长和有关选区影响的信息来针对国会。他们经常在委员会听证会上作证，并帮助围绕一项法案建立议员联盟。
The executive branch is also a major target because agencies write detailed regulations after Congress passes a law. Interest groups lobby the White House, cabinet departments and independent regulatory commissions.
行政部门也是一个主要目标，因为国会在通过法律后，各机构负责制定详细的规章。利益集团游说白宫、内阁部门和独立监管委员会。
The ‘revolving door’ between government and lobbying firms strengthens this influence, as former officials can offer insider knowledge and personal contacts.
政府与游说公司之间的”旋转门”加强了这种影响力，因为前官员可以提供内部知识和个人关系。
6. Judicial Strategies and Litigation | 司法策略与诉讼
When legislative lobbying fails, interest groups may turn to the courts. They can sponsor test cases, file lawsuits and submit amicus curiae briefs to influence judicial interpretation.
当立法游说失败时，利益集团可能转向法院。它们可以资助试验案件、提起诉讼，并提交法庭之友陈述来影响司法解释。
Civil rights groups such as the NAACP Legal Defense Fund used litigation to challenge segregation before the Supreme Court in Brown v Board of Education.
全国有色人种协进会法律辩护基金等民权组织利用诉讼，在布朗诉教育委员会案中向最高法院挑战种族隔离。
Interest groups also try to shape the judiciary by campaigning for or against judicial nominees, especially to the Supreme Court.
利益集团还试图通过支持或反对司法提名人，特别是最高法院提名人，来塑造司法系统。
7. Electioneering and PACs | 竞选活动与政治行动委员会
Political action committees (PACs) are organisations created by interest groups to raise and spend money in elections. They may contribute directly to candidates within strict limits.
政治行动委员会（PAC）是利益集团为在选举中筹集和支出资金而设立的组织。它们可以在严格限制内直接向候选人捐款。
The 2010 Supreme Court ruling in Citizens United v FEC allowed unlimited independent spending by corporations and unions, leading to the rise of Super PACs.
2010年最高法院在联合公民诉联邦选举委员会案中的裁决允许企业和工会进行无限制的独立支出，导致了超级政治行动委员会的兴起。
Super PACs cannot donate directly to candidates, but they can spend unlimited sums on advertising and other communications supporting or opposing candidates.
超级政治行动委员会不能直接向候选人捐款，但它们可以无限制地支出用于支持或反对候选人的广告和其他传播活动。
8. Regulation of Interest Groups | 对利益集团的监管
Lobbying is regulated mainly by the Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995 and the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act 2007, which require lobbyists to register and report their activities.
游说主要受1995年《游说披露法》和2007年《诚实领导和开放政府法》的监管，这些法律要求说客注册并报告其活动。
Campaign finance is regulated by the Federal Election Commission, but the Citizens United decision and lower disclosure requirements for some groups have weakened oversight.
竞选资金由联邦选举委员会监管，但联合公民案的裁决以及某些团体较低的信息披露要求削弱了监督。
Interest groups also face tax rules: 501(c)(3) organisations cannot engage in partisan election activity, while 501(c)(4) social welfare groups can do some political work without disclosing donors.
利益集团还面临税收规则：501(c)(3) 组织不得从事党派选举活动，而501(c)(4) 社会福利团体可以在不披露捐赠者的情况下从事一些政治活动。
9. Interest Groups and Political Parties | 利益集团与政党
Interest groups and parties are often confused, but they perform different roles. Parties nominate candidates, contest elections and seek to control government; interest groups seek to influence government from outside.
利益集团和政党经常被混淆，但它们扮演不同的角色。政党提名候选人、参加选举并寻求控制政府；利益集团则从外部寻求影响政府。
In practice they overlap. Groups such as the NRA are closely aligned with the Republican Party, while labour unions and environmental groups tend to
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