📚 AQA AS Physics PH01 Exam Revision Guide (May 2023) | AQA AS 物理 PH01 考试复习指南（2023 年 5 月）
This comprehensive revision guide is designed for students sitting the AQA International AS Physics Paper 1 (PH01) examination on 9 May 2023 at 07:00 GMT. It covers all core topics from the AS specification, with key definitions, equations and exam strategies to maximise your performance.
本复习指南专为参加 2023 年 5 月 9 日 07:00 GMT 举行的 AQA 国际 AS 物理试卷一（PH01）考试的同学编写。本指南涵盖 AS 大纲全部核心主题，提供关键定义、公式与应试策略，助你在考试中发挥最佳水平。
1. Physical Quantities and Units | 物理量与单位
Physics is built on seven SI base units: the kilogram (kg), metre (m), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (K), mole (mol) and candela (cd). All other physical quantities are derived from these base units. For example, speed is measured in metres per second (m s⁻¹) and density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg m⁻³).
物理学建立在七个国际单位制（SI）基本单位之上：千克（kg）、米（m）、秒（s）、安培（A）、开尔文（K）、摩尔（mol）和坎德拉（cd）。所有其他物理量均由这些基本单位导出。例如，速度以米每秒（m s⁻¹）为单位，密度以千克每立方米（kg m⁻³）为单位。
You must be fluent in unit prefixes. Common ones include pico (p, 10⁻¹²), nano (n, 10⁻⁹), micro (μ, 10⁻⁶), milli (m, 10⁻³), centi (c, 10⁻²), kilo (k, 10³), mega (M, 10⁶) and giga (G, 10⁹). Always convert measurements to base units before substituting into equations.
你必须熟练掌握单位词头。常见的包括皮（p，10⁻¹²）、纳（n，10⁻⁹）、微（μ，10⁻⁶）、毫（m，10⁻³）、厘（c，10⁻²）、千（k，10³）、兆（M，10⁶）和吉（G，10⁹）。在代入公式计算前，务必将所有测量值换算为基本单位。
2. Measurement and Uncertainty | 测量与不确定度
Every measurement carries uncertainty. The absolute uncertainty is the ± value quoted with a measurement; the percentage uncertainty is calculated as (absolute uncertainty ÷ measured value) × 100%. When adding or subtracting quantities, add the absolute uncertainties. When multiplying or dividing quantities, add the percentage uncertainties.
每一次测量都存在不确定度。绝对不确定度是测量值后标注的 ± 值；百分比不确定度按（绝对不确定度 ÷ 测量值）× 100% 计算。当对物理量进行加减运算时，应将绝对不确定度相加；当进行乘除运算时，应将百分比不确定度相加。
Consider an example: measuring a resistance of 200 Ω with ±5 Ω gives a percentage uncertainty of 2.5%. If this value is used to calculate power from a current of 0.50 A ± 2%, the power (P = I²R) carries a percentage uncertainty of 2 × 2% + 2.5% = 6.5%.
例如：测得一电阻为 200 Ω，不确定度为 ±5 Ω，则百分比不确定度为 2.5%。若用该值与电流 0.50 A ± 2% 计算功率，则功率（P = I²R）的百分比不确定度为 2 × 2% + 2.5% = 6.5%。
When measuring the diameter of a wire, use a micrometer screw gauge for precision. Calculate the cross-sectional area from A = πd²/4, remembering that the percentage uncertainty in area is twice that in diameter.
测量金属丝直径时应使用千分尺（螺旋测微器）以保证精度。由 A = πd²/4 计算横截面积，注意面积的百分比不确定度是直径的两倍。
3. Particles and Radiation: Atomic Structure | 粒子与辐射：原子结构
An atom consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons), surrounded by orbiting electrons. The proton number Z is the number of protons; the nucleon number A is the total number of protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons is therefore A − Z.
原子由致密的原子核（包含质子和中子，统称核子）以及绕核运动的电子构成。质子数 Z 为质子数目；核子数 A 为质子与中子数目之和。因此中子数为 A − Z。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different nucleon numbers. They have identical chemical properties but may have different physical properties such as radioactivity. The standard notation for a nuclide is ᴬ_Z X.
同位素是指具有相同质子数但核子数不同的同种元素的原子。它们的化学性质相同，但物理性质（如放射性）可能不同。核素的标注方式为 ᴬ_Z X。
In nuclear notation, the top number A represents the total nucleon count and the bottom number Z identifies the element. For example, uranium-238 is written as ²³⁸₉₂U, containing 92 protons and 146 neutrons.
在核素符号中，上方数字 A 代表核子总数，下方数字 Z 确定元素种类。例如，铀-238 写作 ²³⁸₉₂U，含有 92 个质子和 146 个中子。
4. Particles, Antiparticles and Photons | 粒子、反粒子与光子
Every particle has an antiparticle with the same mass but opposite charge. For example, the positron (e⁺) is the antiparticle of the electron (e⁻). When a particle meets its antiparticle, they annihilate, converting their total rest mass into photon energy: E = mc² applies, where c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹.
每种粒子都有对应的反粒子，反粒子具有相同的质量但电荷相反。例如，正电子（e⁺）是电子（e⁻）的反粒子。当粒子与反粒子相遇时，它们会发生湮灭，将全部静止质量转化为光子能量：E = mc²，其中 c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹。
The energy of a photon is given by E = hf, where h is Planck’s constant (6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s) and f is the frequency. Photons also carry momentum, which is central to the photoelectric effect. In pair production, a high-energy photon can convert into a particle–antiparticle pair, provided the photon energy exceeds the combined rest energy.
光子的能量由 E = hf 给出，其中 h 为普朗克常量（6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s），f 为频率。光子也具有动量，这在光电效应中至关重要。在电子对产生过程中，高能光子可以转化为一对粒子—反粒子，前提是光子能量超过两者的静止能量之和。
In radioactive decay, beta-minus emission involves a neutron converting into a proton:
在放射性衰变中，β⁻ 衰变涉及中子转化为质子：
n → p + e⁻ + ν̄ₑ
The emitted electron is the beta particle, together with an antineutrino. In beta-plus decay, a proton converts into a neutron:
发射出的电子即 β 粒子，同时产生一个反中微子。在 β⁺ 衰变中，质子转化为中子：
p → n + e⁺ + νₑ
5. Waves: Progressive Waves and Properties | 波动：行波与性质
A progressive wave transfers energy without transferring matter. The wave speed v is related to frequency f and wavelength λ by:
行波传递能量而不传递物质。波速 v 与频率 f 和波长 λ 的关系为：
v = fλ
In transverse waves, particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer (for example, light and water waves). In longitudinal waves, particles oscillate parallel to the direction of energy transfer (for example, sound waves). Polarisation is a property unique to transverse waves and provides evidence for this.
在横波中，质点振动方向垂直于能量传播方向（例如光波和水波）。在纵波中，质点振动方向平行于能量传播方向（例如声波）。偏振是横波独有的特性，可作为判断横波的证据。
The period T of a wave is the time for one complete oscillation, related to frequency by T = 1/f. Phase difference between two points is measured in radians or fractions of a wavelength. Two points separated by a whole number of wavelengths oscillate in phase; points separated by half a wavelength are in antiphase.
波的周期 T 是完成一次全振动所需的时间，与频率的关系为 T = 1/f。两点之间的相位差以弧度或波长的分数表示。相距整数个波长的两点同相振动；相距半个波长的两点反相振动。
6. Waves: Interference and Diffraction | 波动：干涉与衍射
The principle of superposition states that when two waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacements. Constructive interference occurs when the path difference between two waves is a whole number of wavelengths (nλ, where n = 0, 1, 2…). Destructive interference occurs when the path difference is a half-integer number of wavelengths ((n + ½)λ).
叠加原理指出：两列波相遇时，合位移为各列波位移的矢量和。当两列波的波程差为波长整数倍（nλ，其中 n = 0, 1, 2…）时，发生相长干涉；当波程差为半波长的奇数倍（(n + ½)λ）时，发生相消干涉。
For Young’s double-slit experiment, the fringe spacing w is given by:
对于杨氏双缝实验，条纹间距 w 由下式给出：
w = λD / s
where D is the distance from the slits to the screen and s is the slit separation. The diffraction grating equation is d sinθ = nλ, where d is the grating spacing calculated from the number of lines per metre. Maximum grating lines give sharper, brighter maxima at wider angles.
其中 D 为双缝到屏幕的距离，s 为双缝间距。衍射光栅方程为 d sinθ = nλ，其中 d 为光栅常数，由每米刻线数计算。光栅刻线越多，条纹越尖锐、越明亮，且衍射角越大。
In an exam, clearly state whether centre maxima or first-order maxima are being described, and always convert grating lines per mm into spacing d in metres.
在考试中，请清晰说明描述的是中央极大还是第一级极大，并始终将每毫米刻线数转换为以米为单位的光栅常数 d。
7. Kinematics: Motion in a Straight Line | 运动学：直线运动
The equations of uniform acceleration (SUVAT) are essential. For initial velocity u, final velocity v, acceleration a, displacement s and time t:
匀加速运动方程（SUVAT）至关重要。设初速度为 u，末速度为 v，加速度为 a，位移为 s，时间为 t：
v = u + at | s = ½(u + v)t | s = ut + ½at² | v² = u² + 2as
These equations only apply to motion with constant acceleration. In free fall near the Earth’s surface, acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m s⁻². When solving projectile problems, resolve motion into independent horizontal (constant velocity) and vertical (constant acceleration) components.
这些方程仅适用于匀加速运动。在地球表面附近的自由落体中，重力加速度 g = 9.81 m s⁻²。求解抛体运动问题时，应将运动分解为相互独立的水平方向（匀速）和竖直方向（匀加速）分量。
Velocity–time graphs and displacement–time graphs appear frequently in PH01. Remember: the gradient of a displacement–time graph gives velocity; the gradient of a velocity–time graph gives acceleration; the area under a velocity–time graph gives displacement.
速度—时间图像和位移—时间图像在 PH01 中经常出现。记住：位移—时间图像的斜率为速度；速度—时间图像的斜率为加速度；速度—时间图像下方的面积为位移。
8. Forces and Newton’s Laws | 力与牛顿定律
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object and is measured in kilograms. Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object and is calculated from W = mg, measured in newtons. These two quantities are frequently confused in exams — mass is a scalar, weight is a vector.
质量是物体所含物质多少的量度，单位为千克。重力是作用在物体上的万有引力，由 W = mg 计算，单位为牛顿。这两个量在考试中经常被混淆——质量是标量，重力是矢量。
Newton’s three laws form the foundation of mechanics. The first law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. The second law quantifies this:
牛顿三大定律构成力学的基础。第一定律指出：物体在不受合外力作用时，保持静止或匀速直线运动状态。第二定律对此进行量化：
F = ma
The resultant force F produces acceleration a on a mass m. The third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. For equilibrium, the resultant force on a body must be zero; for moments, the sum of clockwise moments must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments about any pivot.
合外力 F 使质量 m 产生加速度 a。第三定律指出：每一个作用力都有大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。物体处于平衡状态时，合外力必须为零；对于力矩而言，绕任一支点的顺时针力矩之和必须等于逆时针力矩之和。
9. Work, Energy and Momentum | 功、能与动量
Work done is
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