📚 GCSE CIE Biology: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE CIE 生物：期末复习提纲
This comprehensive revision guide covers every major topic in the CIE GCSE Biology syllabus. Use it to track your progress, identify gaps, and reinforce key concepts as you prepare for final exams.
本综合复习提纲涵盖了CIE GCSE生物大纲中的所有重要主题，可用于追踪学习进度、查漏补缺并巩固关键概念，助力期末考试复习。
1. Characteristics & Classification of Living Organisms | 生物的特征与分类
Living organisms share seven life processes, often remembered as MRS GREN: Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition. Movement is a change in position or place; respiration refers to the release of energy from food; sensitivity means detecting and responding to changes in the environment; growth is a permanent increase in size and dry mass; reproduction is producing offspring; excretion is removal of toxic waste products of metabolism; nutrition is the intake and use of useful materials.
生物共有七个生命过程，常缩记为 MRS GREN：运动、呼吸作用、感应、生长、生殖、排泄和营养。运动指位置改变；呼吸作用指从食物中释放能量；感应指探测并响应环境变化；生长指体积和干质量的永久增加；生殖指产生后代；排泄指移除代谢产生的有毒废物；营养指摄入和利用有用物质。
Organisms are classified using the binomial system introduced by Carl Linnaeus. Every species is given a two-part Latin name: the genus (capitalised) and the species (lowercase), e.g. Homo sapiens. A species is defined as a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
生物通过林奈的双名法进行分类。每个物种有一个由属名（大写）和种名（小写）组成的拉丁名，如 Homo sapiens。物种是指一组能够相互交配并产生可育后代的生物。
The hierarchical classification system ranks organisms from the largest group to the most specific: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Organisms are further grouped into five kingdoms: Prokaryotes (bacteria, no true nucleus), Protoctists (unicellular eukaryotes, like Amoeba), Fungi (multicellular, cell walls of chitin, saprotrophic nutrition), Plants (multicellular, cellulose cell walls, autotrophic) and Animals (multicellular, no cell walls, heterotrophic).
生物分类阶元从大到小为：界、门、纲、目、科、属、种。生物进一步分为五界：原核生物界（细菌，无真核）、原生生物界（单细胞真核生物，如变形虫）、真菌界（多细胞，几丁质细胞壁，腐生营养）、植物界（多细胞，纤维素细胞壁，自养）和动物界（多细胞，无细胞壁，异养）。
Viruses are not placed in any kingdom because they are non-cellular and cannot carry out life processes independently; they reproduce only inside living host cells.
病毒不属于任何生物界，因为它们没有细胞结构，不能独立完成生命过程，只能在活宿主细胞内繁殖。
Dichotomous keys use a series of paired statements to help identify unknown organisms based on observable features.
二分键使用一系列成对描述，根据可观察特征帮助鉴定未知生物。
2. Cells & Biological Organisation | 细胞与生物组织层次
Plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis, whereas animal cells lack these three features. Both cell types share a cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and ribosomes.
植物细胞具有由纤维素组成的细胞壁、一个大液泡和进行光合作用的叶绿体，而动物细胞没有这三种结构。两者都具有细胞膜、细胞质、细胞核、线粒体和核糖体。
The nucleus controls cell activities and contains genetic material (DNA). Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration. Ribosomes synthesise proteins. The cell membrane controls the passage of substances in and out of the cell. Chloroplasts absorb light energy for photosynthesis, and the vacuole stores cell sap and helps maintain turgor.
细胞核控制细胞活动并含有遗传物质（DNA）。线粒体是有氧呼吸的场所。核糖体合成蛋白质。细胞膜控制物质进出细胞。叶绿体吸收光能进行光合作用，液泡储存细胞液并帮助维持膨压。
Biological organisation follows a hierarchy: specialised cells form tissues, tissues form organs, and organs work together in organ systems. For example, muscle cells make up muscle tissue, which forms the heart (an organ), and the heart works within the circulatory system.
生物组织具有层次性：特化细胞构成组织，组织构成器官，器官协同工作形成器官系统。例如，肌肉细胞构成肌肉组织，形成心脏（器官），心脏在循环系统中发挥作用。
Specialised cells are adapted for particular functions. Red blood cells have a biconcave shape and lack a nucleus to maximise oxygen transport. Ciliated cells lining the trachea move mucus with trapped pathogens. Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and minerals. Palisade mesophyll cells contain many chloroplasts for efficient photosynthesis.
特化细胞适应特定功能。红细胞呈双凹形、无核，以最大程度运输氧气。气管内表面的纤毛细胞推动带有病原体的黏液。根毛细胞具有大表面积，用于吸收水分和矿物质。栅栏叶肉细胞含大量叶绿体，进行高效光合作用。
3. Movement in and
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