📚 GCSE OCR Physics: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE OCR 物理：期末复习提纲
This end-of-term revision checklist is designed to help you focus on the most important concepts, equations, and practical skills for your GCSE OCR Physics assessments. Use it to track your progress, identify weak spots, and build confidence before the exam. Each section pairs a quick English summary with its Chinese translation so you can review bilingually and deepen your understanding.
这份期末复习提纲旨在帮助你聚焦 GCSE OCR 物理考试中最核心的概念、方程和实验技能。你可以用它来跟踪复习进度，发现薄弱环节，并在考前建立信心。每个部分均提供英文要点和对应的中文解释，助你通过双语复习加深理解。
1. Energy Stores and Transfers | 能量的储存与转移
Identify the main energy stores: kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal (internal), chemical, nuclear, magnetic, and electrostatic. Recognise that energy can be transferred between stores by heating, by doing work (mechanically or electrically), or by radiation (light and sound).
识别主要的能量储存：动能、重力势能、弹性势能、热能（内能）、化学能、核能、磁能及静电能量。要认识到能量可以通过加热、做功（机械做功或电场做功）或辐射（光与声）在这些储存之间转移。
When a system changes, energy is conserved. Always write a ‘before and after’ energy transfer diagram. For example, a falling object transfers energy from the gravitational potential store to the kinetic store, with some energy dissipated as thermal energy to the surroundings.
系统发生变化时，能量始终守恒。应养成画“变化前后”能量转移图的习惯。例如，下落的物体将重力势能储转移为动能储，同时有一部分能量散失到周围环境成为内能。
Understand and use equations: Ek = ½ m v², ΔEp = m g Δh, and Ee = ½ k e². Watch out for unit conversions (g to kg, cm to m) and note that v² means velocity squared, not speed then multiplied by 2.
理解并运用方程：Ek = ½ m v²、ΔEp = m g Δh 和 Ee = ½ k e²。注意单位换算（克换千克，厘米换米），并牢记 v² 是速度的平方，而不是速度乘以 2。
Efficiency can be calculated as useful output energy transfer divided by total input energy transfer, or useful power output divided by total power input. Efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or percentage. No device is 100% efficient due to dissipation, often as thermal energy to the surroundings.
效率的计算方式为有用的输出能量转移除以总的输入能量转移，或者有用的输出功率除以总的输入功率。效率可用小数或百分比表示。任何设备都不可能达到 100% 效率，因为能量必定会散失，通常是以内能形式散失到周围环境。
2. Electricity and Circuits | 电学与电路
Recall circuit symbols for cells, batteries, switches, lamps, fixed and variable resistors, fuses, diodes, LEDs, LDRs, thermistors, ammeters and voltmeters. In diagrams, ensure wires are drawn with straight lines and right‑angle corners.
熟记以下元件的电路符号：电池、电池组、开关、灯泡、定值电阻和可变电阻、保险丝、二极管、发光二极管、光敏电阻、热敏电阻、电流表及电压表。画电路图时须用直线，拐角应为直角。
Current is the rate of flow of charge: I = ΔQ / Δt. In a single closed loop (series circuit), the current is the same everywhere. In parallel branches, the current splits but the total current entering a junction equals the total current leaving it.
电流是电荷流动的速率：I = ΔQ / Δt。在单一闭合回路（串联电路）中，各处电流相同。在并联支路中，电流会分流，但流入节点的总电流等于流出节点的总电流。
Potential difference (voltage) is energy transferred per unit charge: V = E / Q. In series, the supply p.d. is shared across components. In parallel, each branch gets the full supply p.d. Use voltmeters in parallel and ammeters in series, observing correct polarities for DC.
电势差（电压）是每单位电荷转移的能量：V = E / Q。串联电路中，电源的电压由各元件分担。并联电路中，每条支路得到电源的全部电压。电压表应并联连接，电流表应串联连接，并注意直流电源的正负极接线。
Resistance R = V / I. Ohm’s law applies when resistance is constant at constant temperature. I–V graphs: a fixed resistor gives a straight line through origin; a filament lamp curves as resistance increases with temperature; a diode only allows current in forward bias above ≈0.6 V.
电阻 R = V / I。当温度恒定时，电阻不变，此时满足欧姆定律。I–V 特性图线：定值电阻是通过原点的直线；白炽灯曲线表明电阻随温度升高而增大；二极管仅在正向偏压大于约 0.6 V 时导通。
For components in series, total resistance Rtotal = R₁ + R₂ + … . In parallel, the total resistance is smaller than the smallest individual resistance; use 1/Rtotal = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂. A larger resistance reduces current in a circuit.
串联元件的总电阻 Rtotal = R₁ + R₂ + … 。并联电路的总电阻比最小的单个电阻还要小；使用 1/Rtotal = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ 进行计算。较大的电阻会减小电路中的电流。
3. Particle Model of Matter | 物质的粒子模型
Density ρ = m / V, typically in kg/m³ or g/cm³. The particle model explains differences in density: solids have closely packed particles in a regular arrangement, liquids have closely packed but disordered particles, and gases have widely spaced particles moving randomly.
密度 ρ = m / V，常用单位是 kg/m³ 或 g/cm³。粒子模型可以解释密度的差异：固体粒子紧密排列且有规则结构；液体粒子紧密但排列混乱；气体粒子间距大且随机运动。
Internal energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of particles. Heating a substance increases its internal energy; this can raise temperature or cause a change of state without a temperature change (latent heat).
内能是粒子动能与势能的总和。加热物体可增加其内能；这可能导致温度升高，也可能在不改变温度的情况下引起物态变化（此时吸收潜热）。
Specific heat capacity: ΔE = m c Δθ. Only apply when there is no change of state. Specific latent heat: E = m L, used for melting/freezing (Lf) or boiling/condensing (Lv). During a change of state, temperature remains constant because energy goes into breaking bonds rather than increasing kinetic energy.
比热容：ΔE = m c Δθ。仅在没有物态变化时使用。比潜热：E = m L，用于熔化/凝固（Lf）或沸腾/冷凝（Lv）。物态变化期间温度保持恒定，因为能量用于打破粒子间的作用而非增加动能。
Pressure in a gas is caused by particles colliding with container walls. Increasing temperature increases the average kinetic energy, so particles hit walls harder and more often, raising pressure (at constant volume). Doing work on a gas (compressing it) can also increase its temperature.
气体压强源于粒子对容器壁的碰撞。升高温度会增加粒子的平均动能，因此粒子撞击器壁更用力、更频繁，从而使压强增大（体积不变时）。对气体做功（压缩）也可使其温度升高。
4. Atomic Structure and Radioactivity | 原子结构与放射性
The nuclear model: a positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels. Atomic number = number of protons; mass number = protons + neutrons. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
核式模型：原子有一个带正电的原子核，由质子和中子组成，核外电子分布在不同能级上。原子序数 = 质子数；质量数 = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素质子数相同但中子数不同。
Alpha decay: nucleus emits an alpha particle (2 protons + 2 neutrons), atomic number reduces by 2, mass number by 4. Beta decay: a neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron); atomic number increases by 1, mass number does not change. Gamma radiation often accompanies alpha or beta decay.
α 衰变：原子核放出一个 α 粒子（2 个质子 + 2 个中子），原子序数减 2，质量数减 4。β 衰变：一个中子转变成质子并放出一个 β 粒子（电子）；原子序数加 1，质量数不变。γ 辐射通常伴随 α 或 β 衰变产生。
Penetrating power and ionising ability: alpha is highly ionising but stopped by paper or skin; beta is moderately ionising, stopped by a few mm of aluminium; gamma is weakly ionising but penetrates deeply, reduced by thick lead or concrete. Use these properties to interpret Geiger–Müller tube data and thickness monitoring.
穿透力与电离能力：α 粒子电离能力最强，但能被一张纸或皮肤阻挡；β 粒子电离能力中等，几毫米铝可阻挡；γ 射线电离能力弱但穿透力极强，厚铅板或混凝土可衰减。利用这些特性解释盖革-米勒管数据和厚度监测应用。
Half-life is the time taken for half the unstable nuclei in a sample to decay, or the count rate to halve. Use the concept to calculate remaining activity or mass after several half-lives. The random nature of decay means we cannot predict which nucleus will decay next.
半衰期是指样本中不稳定原子核衰变一半所需的时间，或计数率降低一半所需的时间。运用半衰期概念可计算经过若干个半衰期后的剩余活度或质量。衰变的随机性意味着无法预测下一个衰变的原子核。
Nuclear equations must balance total mass numbers and total atomic numbers on both sides. Write equations for alpha and beta decay, representing alpha as ⁴₂He or ⁴₂α and beta as ⁰₋₁e.
核反应方程式的两侧须满足质量总数和原子序总数守恒。写出 α 衰变和 β 衰变的方程式，α 粒子用 ⁴₂He 或 ⁴₂α 表示，β 粒子用 ⁰₋₁e 表示。
5. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Scalars have magnitude only (speed, distance, mass, energy); vectors have magnitude and direction (velocity, displacement, force, acceleration, momentum). Arrows on diagrams represent vectors; length shows magnitude, direction shows direction.
标量只有大小（如速率、路程、质量、能量）；矢量既有大小又有方向（如速度、位移、力、加速度、动量）。图表中用箭头表示矢量，箭头的长度表示大小，方向表示方向。
Equations of motion: average speed = distance / time; acceleration = change in velocity / time, a = (v – u) / t. Final velocity v² – u² = 2 a s. Interpret distance–time graphs (gradient = speed) and velocity–time graphs (gradient = acceleration, area under graph = distance travelled).
运动学方程：平均速度 = 路程 / 时间；加速度 = 速度变化量 / 时间，a = (v – u) / t。末速度关系 v² – u² = 2 a s。能解读距离–时间图（斜率 = 速度）和速度–时间图（斜率 = 加速度，图线下面积 = 路程）。
Newton’s Laws: 1st – an object remains at rest or at constant velocity unless a resultant force acts. 2nd – F = m a, resultant force and acceleration are directly proportional, in the same direction. 3rd – when two objects interact, forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
牛顿运动定律：第一定律 – 物体在无合力作用时保持静止或匀速直线运动。第二定律 – F = m a，合力与加速度成正比且方向相同。第三定律 – 两物体相互作用时，作用力与反作用力大小相等、方向相反。
Weight = mass × gravitational field strength, W = m g. g on Earth ≈ 9.8 N/kg. Mass is a measure of inertia, not changing with location; weight is a force, varies with g.
重力 = 质量 × 引力场强度，W = m g。地球表面的 g ≈ 9.8 N/kg。质量是惯性的量度，不随位置改变；重力是一种力，随 g 值变化。
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Factors: speed, reaction time, distractions, alcohol/drugs, vehicle condition, road surface, tyre tread. Graphs often show that braking distance is proportional to (speed)² for a constant braking force.
停车距离 = 思考距离 + 制动距离。影响因素包括：车速、反应时间、注意力分散、酒精/药物、车辆状况、路面状况、轮胎花纹。图线常显示，在制动力恒定情况下，制动距离与速度的平方成正比。
6. Waves | 波动
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves (e.g. water ripples, all electromagnetic waves) have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer. Longitudinal waves (e.g. sound, P‑waves) have oscillations parallel to transfer direction, showing compressions and rarefactions.
波传播能量而不传播物质。横波（如水波、所有电磁波）的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直。纵波（如声波、P 波）的振动方向与传播方向平行，呈现出稀疏与稠密区域。
Wave equation: v = f λ. v = wave speed (m/s), f = frequency (Hz), λ = wavelength (m). Measure wavelength as the distance between two consecutive crests, and period T = 1/f. Use the equation to calculate any unknown when two are given.
波动方程：v = f λ。v 为波速（m/s），f 为频率（Hz），λ 为波长（m）。测量波长时可取相邻两波峰间的距离；周期 T = 1/f。利用该方程可在已知两个量时求第三个。
Reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when a wave enters a new medium and changes speed, causing a change in direction unless it enters along the normal. Use ray diagrams to show how prisms and lenses refract light.
反射：入射角等于反射角。折射发生在波进入新介质并改变速度时，从而引起方向变化（除非沿法线入射）。用光线图可以展示棱镜和透镜对光的折射。
Electromagnetic spectrum: in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X‑ray, gamma. All travel at the same speed in a vacuum (3.0 × 10⁸ m/s). Link uses to properties: radio for broadcasting, microwaves for heating and communications, infrared for thermal imaging, X‑rays for medical imaging.
电磁波谱按频率递增、波长递减排列：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。在真空中所有电磁波的速度均为 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s。将应用与特性联系起来：无线电波用于广播，微波用于加热与通信，红外线用于热成像，X 射线用于医学影像。
For sound waves, humans hear 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Ultrasound above 20 kHz can be used for medical imaging and industrial flaw detection. Echoes and the speed of sound in different media can be explored using the v = f λ equation.
人类能听到 20 Hz 到 20 kHz 的声波。高于 20 kHz 的超声波可用于医学成像和工业探伤。可利用 v = f λ 方程研究回声以及声音在不同介质中的传播速度。
7. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁学与电磁学
Permanent magnets produce their own magnetic field; induced magnets become magnetic only in a magnetic field. The field lines point from North to South. A uniform magnetic field is shown by parallel, equally spaced lines.
永磁体可以产生自己的磁场；感生磁体仅在外部磁场中被磁化。磁感线方向从 N 极指向 S 极。平行且均匀分布的磁感线表示匀强磁场。
When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is created around it. The right‑hand grip rule helps determine field direction: thumb points in direction of current, fingers show field direction. A solenoid becomes a strong electromagnet; adding an iron core increases strength further.
导线中有电流通过时，在其周围会产生磁场。右手定则有助于判断磁场方向：拇指指向电流方向，手指表示磁场方向。螺线管可成为强电磁铁；加入铁芯更能显著增强磁性。
Fleming’s left‑hand rule gives the direction of force on a current‑carrying wire in a magnetic field: First finger = Field, seCond finger = Current, thuMb = Motion (F‑B‑I). This is the motor effect. The force F = B I L where B is magnetic flux density (T).
弗莱明左手定则给出了通电导线在磁场中受力的方向：食指 – 磁场 (Field)，中指 – 电流 (Current)，拇指 – 运动 (Motion) (F‑B‑I)。这就是电动机效应。力的大小 F = B I L，其中 B 为磁通量密度 (T)。
Electromagnetic induction: a changing magnetic field near a conductor induces a potential difference (generator effect). Move a wire through a magnetic field or move a magnet inside a coil to generate p.d. The induced p.d. increases with stronger magnets, faster relative movement, and more turns on the coil.
电磁感应：导体附近变化的磁场会感应出电势差（发电机效应）。使导线在磁场中运动，或让磁铁在线圈内运动可产生电压。增强磁铁强度、加快相对运动、增加线圈匝数均可增大感应电势差。
Motors, generators, loudspeakers and microphones all apply these principles. A microphone uses a coil attached to a diaphragm moving in a magnetic field; the induced p.d. mirrors the sound wave, converting sound to an electrical signal.
电动机、发电机、扬声器和麦克风均应用这些原理。麦克风利用附着于振膜的线圈在磁场中运动，感应出的电势差遵循声波变化，将声音转换为电信号。
8. Space Physics | 太空物理
Our Solar System consists of the Sun (a star), eight planets, dwarf planets, moons, comets and asteroids. Gravitational force provides the centripetal force that keeps planets and moons in their orbits. Without gravity, objects would move in a straight line at constant speed.
太阳系由太阳（恒星）、八大行星、矮行星、卫星、彗星和小行星组成。引力提供了使行星和卫星维持在轨道上的向心力。若无引力，物体会以恒定速度沿直线运动。
The life cycle of a star depends on its mass. Stars like the Sun: nebula → protostar → main sequence → red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf → black dwarf. More massive stars become supergiants, explode in a supernova, leaving behind a neutron star or black hole.
恒星的演化周期取决于质量。类似太阳的恒星：星云 → 原恒星 → 主序星 → 红巨星 → 行星状星云 → 白矮星 → 黑矮星。质量更大的恒星会演化为超巨星，发生超新星爆发，留下中子星或黑洞。
Red‑shift provides evidence for the Big Bang. Light from distant galaxies is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum, meaning they are moving away from us. The further away a galaxy is, the greater its red‑shift, so the faster it recedes. This suggests the Universe is expanding from an initial single point.
红移现象为大爆炸理论提供了证据。来自遥远星系的光谱向红端偏移，表明它们正在远离我们。星系越远，红移越大，退行速度越快。这意味着宇宙正由最初的一点不断膨胀。
Describe how fusion in stars produces elements up to iron. Heavier elements are formed in supernova explosions. This element production explains why we, and everything around us, are made of ‘star dust’.
描述恒星内部的聚变如何产生直至铁元素的元素。更重的元素则在超新星爆发中形成。这一元素生成过程可以解释为什么我们以及周围的一切都由“星尘”构成。
9. Required Practicals Summary | 必做实验总结
Specific heat capacity—use a joule meter or electric heater with known power to measure energy supplied, record temperature rise with a thermometer, measure mass of the block, and calculate c from ΔE = m c Δθ. Insulate the block and stir water well to reduce errors caused by heat loss.
比热容实验——使用焦耳计或已知功率的电加热器测量提供能量，用温度计记录温升，测量金属块质量，由 ΔE = m c Δθ 计算 c。包裹隔热层并充分搅拌水以减少热损失造成的误差。
Resistance of a wire—set up a circuit with an ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel across the test wire; vary the length of wire and record V and I, calculate R = V/I to show R proportional to length. Clip connections firmly to avoid contact resistance.
金属线电阻实验——建立串联电流表和并联在测试导线两端的电压表的电路；改变导线长度，记录电压 V 和电流 I，计算 R = V/I，证明 R 与长度成正比。确保夹子连接牢固以避免接触电阻。
Density—measure mass using a top‑pan balance; for regular solids, calculate volume from linear measurements; for irregular solids, use displacement in a measuring cylinder; for liquids, use a measuring cylinder or pipette. Then apply ρ = m/V. Take repeats for reliability.
密度实验——用电子天平测量质量；规则固体用直尺量取尺寸计算体积；不规则固体用量筒排水法测体积；液体则用量筒或移液管量取体积。然后使用 ρ = m/V。重复测量以提高可靠性。
Force and extension—hang a spring from a clamp, add known weights, and record extension. Use Hooke’s law F = k x to find spring constant (the gradient of the F–extension graph). Ensure limit of proportionality is not exceeded; remove any zero error.
力与伸长实验——将弹簧悬挂在支架上，增加已知砝码，记录伸长量。利用胡克定律 F = k x 求弹簧劲度系数（为 F–伸长量图线的斜率）。避免超过比例极限；注意消除零误差。
Waves on a string—use a vibration generator attached to a string over a pulley; adjust frequency until a clear standing wave appears, measure the wavelength (e.g. distance between nodes × 2) and frequency, then calculate v = f λ. This confirms the wave equation.
琴弦驻波实验——将振动发生器与绕过滑轮的弦相连；调整频率直至出现清晰的驻波，测量波长（如两波节间距 ×2）和频率，再计算 v = f λ。以此验证波动方程。
10. Mathematical and Graph Skills | 数学与图表技能
Convert between units confidently: e.g. 1 kJ = 1000 J, 1 kW = 1000 W, 1 mA = 0.001 A, 1 cm² = 1×10⁻⁴ m². Standard form is commonly tested: write 3.6 MJ as 3.6×10⁶ J. Prefixes like kilo (10³), mega (10⁶), milli (10⁻³), micro (10⁻⁶) must be automatic.
熟练进行单位换算：如 1 kJ = 1000 J，1 kW = 1000 W，1 mA = 0.001 A，1 cm² = 1×10⁻⁴ m²。科学记数法是常见考点：将 3.6 MJ 写作 3.6×10⁶ J。必须熟练掌握千 (10³)、兆 (10⁶)、毫 (10⁻³)、微 (10⁻⁶) 等词头。
Plot data on graphs accurately, choosing sensible scales that make use of at least half the grid. Draw lines or curves of best fit; identify anomalies. Calculate gradients using a large triangle, and extract intercepts. For non‑linear relationships, describe the pattern clearly.
在坐标图上准确绘制数据点，选用合理标度，至少占据图纸一半。绘制最佳拟合线或曲线；识别异常点。用大三角形计算斜率，并读取截距。对于非线性关系，清晰地描述其变化模式。
Rearrange formulae before substituting numbers: e.g. from v = f λ, write f = v/λ. Use the Δ notation correctly. Always write the equation, rearrange, substitute with units, and give the final answer with a unit. Show steps to gain method marks.
先变换公式再代入数字：如由 v = f λ 写出 f = v/λ。正确使用 Δ 符号。始终写出原方程、变形、代入带单位的数值，并给出带单位的最终答案。写出步骤以获得方法分。
Understand direct and inverse proportion. For a directly proportional relationship, a straight line through origin is expected. Inverse proportion yields a curved graph; plotting a variable against 1/x can give a straight line. Link this to graphs for Ohm’s law, Boyle’s law, and pressure–temperature.
理解正比与反比关系。成正比时，图线为一条过原点的直线。成反比时图线为曲线；若将变量对 1/x 作图，通常可得一直线。将此与欧姆定律、玻意耳定律及压强–温度关系的图像联系起来。
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