IB AQA Economics: End-of-Term Revision Outline | IB AQA 经济：期末复习提纲

📚 IB AQA Economics: End-of-Term Revision Outline | IB AQA 经济：期末复习提纲

This revision outline covers the core topics of the IB Economics syllabus (with AQA-aligned terminology) to support your end-of-term preparation. Use it to check your understanding of key concepts, models and applications. Each section pairs essential explanations in English and Chinese to reinforce bilingual learning.

本复习提纲涵盖 IB 经济学课程的核心主题（采用 AQA 对齐术语），助你备战期末考试。用它来检验对关键概念、模型和应用的理解。每个板块均以英文与中文配对讲解，强化双语学习。

1. Foundations of Economics | 经济学基础

Economics is the study of how scarce resources are allocated to meet unlimited wants. The fundamental problem of scarcity forces societies to answer three key questions: what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce.

经济学研究稀缺资源如何分配以满足无限欲望。稀缺性的根本问题迫使社会回答三个关键问题：生产什么、如何生产、为谁生产。

Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative foregone when a choice is made. It underpins all economic decision-making and is illustrated by the production possibility curve (PPC), which shows maximum output combinations of two goods.

机会成本是做选择时所放弃的次优替代品的价值。它是一切经济决策的基础，可由生产可能性曲线（PPC）说明，该曲线展示两种商品的最大产出组合。

Positive statements are objective and fact-based (e.g. ‘unemployment is 5%’), while normative statements involve value judgments (e.g. ‘the government should reduce unemployment’).

实证表述是客观、基于事实的（如“失业率为5%”），而规范表述涉及价值判断（如“政府应该降低失业率”）。

2. Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium | 需求、供给与市场均衡

Demand is the quantity consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, ceteris paribus. The law of demand states that as price rises, quantity demanded falls, leading to a downward-sloping demand curve.

需求是消费者在不同价格下愿意并能够购买的数量，其他条件不变。需求定律指价格上升时需求量下降，因此需求曲线向下倾斜。

Supply is the quantity producers are willing and able to offer at various prices. The law of supply results in an upward-sloping supply curve because higher prices incentivise greater output.

供给是生产者在不同价格下愿意并能够提供的数量。供给定律使供给曲线向上倾斜，因为较高价格激励更多产出。

Market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. Disequilibrium creates shortages (excess demand) or surpluses (excess supply), pushing the price back toward equilibrium through the price mechanism.

市场均衡出现在需求量等于供给量之处。非均衡产生短缺（超额需求）或过剩（超额供给），通过价格机制推动价格回归均衡。

3. Elasticities | 弹性

Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. The formula is:

需求的价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。公式为：

PED = %ΔQd / %ΔP

When |PED| > 1, demand is elastic; when |PED| < 1, it is inelastic. Determinants include availability of substitutes, necessity vs. luxury, and time period.

当 |PED| > 1 时，需求富有弹性；|PED| < 1 时缺乏弹性。决定因素包括替代品的可得性、必需品与奢侈品的区别，以及时间跨度。

Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures responsiveness of quantity supplied to price changes. PES = %ΔQs / %ΔP. Key factors are production time, spare capacity, and storability.

供给的价格弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。PES = %ΔQs / %ΔP。关键因素有生产时间、闲置产能和可储存性。

Income elasticity of demand (YED) and cross-price elasticity (XED) capture responsiveness to income and the price of other goods. YED distinguishes normal goods (positive) from inferior goods (negative); XED identifies substitutes (positive) and complements (negative).

需求的收入弹性（YED）和交叉价格弹性（XED）反映需求量对收入和其它商品价格的反应。YED区分正常品（正值）和低档品（负值）；XED识别替代品（正值）和互补品（负值）。

4. Government Intervention | 政府干预

Governments intervene in markets to correct market failures, redistribute income, or stabilise prices. Common tools include indirect taxes, subsidies, and price controls.

政府干预市场以纠正市场失灵、再分配收入或稳定价格。常用工具包括间接税、补贴和价格管制。

An indirect tax (e.g. excise tax) shifts the supply curve leftwards by the amount of the tax. The tax burden is shared between consumers and producers depending on relative elasticities.

间接税（如消费税）使供给曲线向左平移，移动幅度等于税额。税负由消费者和生产者分担，取决于相对弹性。

A subsidy shifts the supply curve rightwards, lowering the market price and increasing quantity. It is often used to support merit goods like education and renewable energy.

补贴使供给曲线向右平移，降低市场价格并增加数量。常用来支持教育、可再生能源等优效品。

Price ceilings (maximum price) and price floors (minimum price) set legal limits. Ceilings below equilibrium cause persistent shortages; floors above equilibrium generate surpluses, often requiring government purchases to maintain.

价格天花板（最高限价）和价格地板（最低限价）设定法定界限。天花板低于均衡价导致持续短缺；地板高于均衡价产生过剩，常需政府采购以维持。

5. Market Failure | 市场失灵

Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Key types include externalities, public goods, information asymmetry and monopoly power.

市场失灵指自由市场未能有效配置资源。主要类型包括外部性、公共品、信息不对称和垄断势力。

Negative externalities (e.g. pollution) cause overproduction because the social cost exceeds the private cost. Positive externalities (e.g. vaccination) lead to underproduction because social benefits exceed private benefits.

负外部性（如污染）导致过度生产，因社会成本大于私人成本。正外部性（如疫苗）导致生产不足，因社会收益大于私人收益。

Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous (e.g. street lighting). The free-rider problem makes private provision unprofitable, so governments often supply them.

公共品具有非排他性和非竞争性（如路灯）。搭便车问题使私人提供无利可图，故政府通常予以提供。

Asymmetric information, where one party has more knowledge, can cause adverse selection or moral hazard and lead to missing markets.

信息不对称（一方掌握更多信息）可能导致逆向选择或道德风险，并造成市场缺失。

6. Macroeconomic Objectives | 宏观经济目标

Governments pursue four main macroeconomic goals: sustained economic growth, low and stable inflation, low unemployment, and a sustainable balance of payments. Distribution of income is often a fifth objective.

政府追求四大宏观经济目标：持续经济增长、低且稳定的通胀、低失业率、可持续的国际收支平衡。收入分配常作为第五个目标。

GDP measures the total value of final goods and services produced in an economy over a period. Real GDP adjusts for inflation and is used to measure economic growth.

GDP衡量一国一定时期内生产的最终商品和服务的总价值。实际GDP剔除了通胀影响，用于衡量经济增长。

Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level, measured by CPI. Low and stable inflation (e.g. 2%) is desired; deflation and hyperinflation are harmful.

通货膨胀是总体物价水平的持续上涨，用CPI衡量。低且稳定的通胀（如2%）较为合意；通货紧缩和恶性通胀危害巨大。

Unemployment types include frictional, structural, cyclical and seasonal. The natural rate of unemployment excludes cyclical factors.

失业类型包含摩擦性、结构性、周期性和季节性。自然失业率排除了周期性因素。

7. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply | 总需求与总供给

Aggregate demand (AD) is total spending on domestic goods and services: AD = C + I + G + (X – M). Its curve slopes downward due to the wealth, interest rate and international trade effects.

总需求（AD）是国内商品服务的总支出：AD = C + I + G + (X – M)。其曲线因财富效应、利率效应和国际贸易效应而向下倾斜。

Short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) shows total output firms are willing to supply at different price levels, assuming some input costs are sticky. The long-run aggregate supply (LRAS) is vertical at the full employment level of output, as wages and prices are flexible.

短期总供给（SRAS）表示厂商在不同价格水平下愿意提供的总产出，假设部分投入成本粘性。长期总供给（LRAS）在充分就业产出水平呈垂直线，因为工资和价格具有弹性。

Shifts in AD or SRAS cause short-run fluctuations in output and price level. An increase in AD leads to demand-pull inflation; a leftward shift of SRAS causes cost-push inflation.

AD或SRAS的移动导致短期产出和价格水平的波动。AD增加引起需求拉动型通胀；SRAS向左移导致成本推动型通胀。

In the long run, the economy tends to return to potential output (Yf) unless LRAS shifts due to factors like improved technology or increased quantity/quality of labour and capital.

长期中，经济趋向回到潜在产出（Yf），除非因技术进步或劳动力/资本数量与质量改善等使LRAS移动。

8. Macroeconomic Policies | 宏观经济政策

Fiscal policy uses government spending and taxation to influence AD. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher G, lower T) boosts AD and can reduce unemployment but may increase budget deficits and inflation.

财政政策利用政府支出与税收影响总需求。扩张性财政政策（增加G，降低T）提升AD，可降低失业，但可能增加预算赤字和通胀。

Monetary policy is conducted by a central bank via interest rates and money supply. Lower interest rates encourage borrowing and investment, increasing AD. Quantitative easing (QE) is an unconventional tool that injects liquidity into the financial system.

货币政策由中央银行通过利率和货币供应实施。降低利率鼓励借贷和投资，增加AD。量化宽松（QE）是向金融体系注入流动性的非常规工具。

Supply-side policies aim to increase LRAS by improving productivity and efficiency. Examples include investment in education, infrastructure, tax reforms and deregulation. These can achieve non-inflationary growth over time.

供给方政策旨在通过提高生产力与效率来增加LRAS。例子包括教育投资、基础设施建设、税制改革和放松管制，可长期实现无通胀增长。

Policy	Tools	Main aim
Fiscal	G, T	Manage AD, redistribute income
Monetary	Interest rates, QE	Price stability, influence AD
Supply-side	Education, deregulation	Shift LRAS, boost potential growth

9. International Economics | 国际经济学

Comparative advantage explains that countries benefit from trade by specialising in goods where they have a lower opportunity cost. Trade increases global output and allows consumption beyond PPC.

比较优势说明各国通过专业化生产机会成本较低的商品能从贸易中获益。贸易增加全球产出，使消费超出生产可能性曲线。

The balance of payments records all transactions between a country and the rest of the world. The current account includes trade in goods/services, primary income and secondary income. A deficit implies spending on imports exceeds earnings from exports.

国际收支平衡表记录一国与外部世界的所有交易。经常账户包括货物与服务贸易、初次收入和二次收入。赤字意味着进口支出超过出口收入。

Exchange rates are determined in the foreign exchange market. A depreciation makes exports cheaper and imports dearer, potentially correcting a current account deficit, but may cause imported inflation.

汇率由外汇市场决定。本币贬值使出口更便宜、进口更昂贵，可能纠正经常账户赤字，但可能引起输入性通胀。

Protectionist measures such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies shield domestic industries from foreign competition. While they may save jobs, they often lead to higher consumer prices and retaliation.

保护主义措施如关税、配额和补贴使国内产业免受外国竞争。虽可能保护就业，但通常导致消费价格上涨和报复行为。

10. Development Economics | 发展经济学

Economic development is broader than economic growth, encompassing improvements in health, education, income distribution and environmental quality. Key indicators include the Human Development Index (HDI), Gini coefficient and Multidimensional Poverty Index.

经济发展比经济增长更宽泛，涵盖健康、教育、收入分配和环境质量的改善。主要指标有人类发展指数（HDI）、基尼系数和多维贫困指数。

Barriers to development include inadequate infrastructure, low human capital, political instability, debt burdens and adverse geography. Trade can be a driver of growth if linked to institutional reforms and fair market access.

发展障碍包括基础设施不足、人力资本低、政局不稳、债务负担和不利的地理条件。若与制度改革和公平市场准入相结合，贸易可成为增长驱动力。

Strategies to promote development involve foreign aid, microfinance, sustainable development goals (SDGs) and trade liberalisation with protections for infant industries. Effective governance and anti-corruption measures are crucial.

促进发展的策略包括对外援助、小额信贷、可持续发展目标（SDGs）以及附带幼稚产业保护的贸易自由化。有效治理与反腐措施至关重要。

The role of the IMF and World Bank includes stabilising economies through lending and providing long-term development finance, though their conditionality policies are sometimes controversial.

国际货币基金组织和世界银行的作用包括通过贷款稳定经济及提供长期发展融资，但其条件性政策有时存在争议。

11. Evaluation and Exam Skills | 评估与应试技巧

IB Economics exams reward clear, structured answers using diagrams, definitions and reasoned evaluation. Always consider short-run versus long-run effects, stakeholder impacts, and the assumptions behind models when analysing policies.

IB 经济学考试奖励结构清晰、运用图示、定义和合理评价的作答。分析政策时务必考虑短期与长期效应、利益相关者影响及模型背后的假设。

Command terms dictate response depth: ‘explain’ requires a cause-and-effect chain; ‘evaluate’ demands judgment with advantages and disadvantages; ‘discuss’ balances both sides with a justified conclusion.

指令词决定作答深度：“explain”需要因果链条；“evaluate”要求做出判断并权衡优缺点；“discuss”则需平衡双方论点并给出有理由的结论。

Common pitfalls include confusing a movement along a curve with a shift, neglecting elasticity when analysing tax incidence, and listing points without application to the context.

常见误区包括混淆沿曲线移动与曲线平移，分析税负时忽略弹性，以及罗列要点却不联系实际情境。

12. Quick Review Checklist | 快速复习清单

Use this checklist to self-assess your readiness:

使用这份清单自测备考情况：

Can you define and diagram demand and supply, including determinants of shifts?

你能定义并用图示表示需求与供给，包括其移动的决定因素吗？
Can you calculate and interpret PED, PES, YED and XED?

你能计算并解释PED、PES、YED和XED吗？
Can you illustrate the effects of indirect taxes, subsidies and price controls?

你能图示间接税、补贴和价格管制的效应吗？
Can you explain market failure types and evaluate corresponding government responses?

你能解释市场失灵的类型并评价对应的政府对策吗？
Can you draw and explain AD/AS diagrams and analyse macroeconomic equilibrium?

你能绘制并解释AD/AS图，分析宏观经济均衡吗？
Can you compare fiscal, monetary and supply-side policies in various contexts?

你能在不同背景下比较财政、货币与供给方政策吗？
Can you use the concepts of comparative advantage and exchange rates to discuss trade and protectionism?

你能运用比较优势与汇率概念讨论贸易与保护主义吗？
Can you link development theory to real-world data and policy debates?

你能将发展理论与现实数据及政策辩论联系起来吗？

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IB AQA Economics: End-of-Term Revision Outline | IB AQA 经济：期末复习提纲