📚 AQA GCSE Biology Topic 1 Glossary of Key Terms | AQA GCSE 生物学 主题1 关键术语词汇表
This glossary provides concise, AQA-exam focused definitions for all essential terms in Topic 1 Cell Biology. Mastering these keywords will strengthen your understanding and help you achieve top marks in your GCSE Biology assessments.
本词汇表提供了AQA考试中主题1细胞生物学的所有核心术语的简明定义。掌握这些关键词将加深你的理解，帮助你在GCSE生物学考试中取得优异成绩。
1. Cell Structure and Types | 细胞结构与类型
Eukaryote: An organism whose cells have a nucleus bounded by a membrane and membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria. Examples include animals, plants, and fungi.
真核生物：细胞具有由膜包裹的细胞核和膜结合细胞器（如线粒体）的生物。例如动物、植物和真菌。
Prokaryote: A single-celled organism without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Its DNA is free in the cytoplasm, usually as a single circular chromosome and small plasmids. Bacteria are prokaryotes.
原核生物：无细胞核和膜结合细胞器的单细胞生物。其DNA游离在细胞质中，通常以一条环状染色体和小质粒形式存在。细菌是原核生物。
Nucleus: An organelle containing the cell’s genetic material (DNA), which controls the cell’s activities and directs protein synthesis.
细胞核：含有细胞遗传物质（DNA）的细胞器，控制细胞的活动并指导蛋白质合成。
Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance that fills most of the cell, where many chemical reactions take place and organelles are suspended.
细胞质：充满细胞大部分的凝胶状物质，许多化学反应在此进行，细胞器悬浮其中。
Cell Membrane: A selectively permeable barrier surrounding the cell that controls the movement of substances in and out.
细胞膜：包围细胞的半透性屏障，控制物质进出细胞。
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion): Organelles where aerobic respiration takes place, releasing energy for the cell in the form of ATP.
线粒体：有氧呼吸发生的细胞器，通过合成ATP为细胞释放能量。
Ribosomes: Tiny structures, either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, that are the sites of protein synthesis.
核糖体：微小结构，或游离在细胞质中，或附着在粗面内质网上，是蛋白质合成的场所。
2. Animal and Plant Cells | 动物细胞与植物细胞
Animal Cell: A typical animal cell contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, and ribosomes. It lacks a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large permanent vacuole.
动物细胞：典型的动物细胞含有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。它没有细胞壁、叶绿体和大液泡。
Plant Cell: In addition to the components found in animal cells, plant cells have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, chloroplasts (in most green parts), and a large permanent vacuole filled with cell sap.
植物细胞：除动物细胞所含成分外，植物细胞还具有纤维素构成的坚硬的细胞壁、叶绿体（大部分绿色部位）和一个充满细胞液的大液泡。
Cell Wall: An outer layer made of cellulose that provides structural support and protection for plant, algal, and fungal cells. It is fully permeable.
细胞壁：由纤维素构成的外层，为植物、藻类和真菌细胞提供结构支撑和保护。它是全透性的。
Chloroplasts: Organelles containing chlorophyll that absorb light energy for photosynthesis. They make glucose and are found in the green parts of plants.
叶绿体：含有叶绿素的细胞器，能吸收光能用于光合作用。它们制造葡萄糖，存在于植物的绿色部分。
Permanent Vacuole: A large, fluid-filled sac in the centre of plant cells that stores cell sap and helps keep the cell rigid via turgor pressure.
大液泡：植物细胞中央充满液体的囊状结构，储存细胞液，并通过膨胀压维持细胞坚挺。
3. Bacterial Cells | 细菌细胞
Bacterial Cell: A prokaryotic cell, typically 1–5 μm in length, much smaller than eukaryotic cells. It contains chromosomal DNA free in the cytoplasm, plasmids, ribosomes, a cell membrane, and a cell wall (not cellulose).
细菌细胞：一种原核细胞，通常长1–5微米，比真核细胞小得多。它含有游离于细胞质中的染色体DNA、质粒、核糖体、细胞膜和细胞壁（非纤维素）。
Plasmid: A small, circular loop of DNA found in prokaryotes that often carries genes for advantageous traits such as antibiotic resistance, and can be transferred between bacteria.
质粒：原核生物中的小的环状DNA分子，常携带如抗生素抗性等有利性状的基因，可在细菌间转移。
Flagellum (plural: flagella): A long, whip-like tail that rotates to propel some bacteria through liquids.
鞭毛：长的鞭状尾巴，通过旋转推动某些细菌在液体中运动。
Slime Capsule: A sticky outer layer found in some bacteria that helps them attach to surfaces and protects against the host’s immune system.
荚膜：某些细菌的粘性外层，帮助它们附着于表面并保护其免受宿主免疫系统的攻击。
Gene: A section of DNA that codes for a specific protein, determining a particular trait.
基因：编码特定蛋白质的DNA片段，决定某一性状。
4. Microscopy | 显微技术
Magnification: The number of times larger an image appears compared to the object’s actual size. Magnification = image size ÷ actual size.
放大倍数：图像比物体实际尺寸放大的倍数。放大倍数 = 图像尺寸 ÷ 实际尺寸。
Resolution: The ability to distinguish between two separate points that are close together. Higher resolution means finer detail can be seen.
分辨率：区分两个靠得很近的点的能力。分辨率越高，能看到的细节越精细。
Light Microscope: An instrument that uses light and lenses to magnify a specimen. It typically has a lower magnification (up to x1000–x2000) and lower resolution than an electron microscope.
光学显微镜：利用光线和透镜放大样本的仪器。与电子显微镜相比，通常放大倍数较低（最高约x1000–x2000），分辨率也较低。
Electron Microscope: A microscope that uses a beam of electrons to create an image. It has a much higher magnification (over ×500,000) and resolution, allowing scientists to see subcellular structures like ribosomes and the internal detail of mitochondria.
电子显微镜：使用电子束成像的显微镜。它具有极高的放大倍数（超过×500,000）和分辨率，使科学家能观察到核糖体和线粒体内部结构等亚细胞结构。
5. Cell Specialisation and Differentiation | 细胞特化与分化
Differentiation: The process by which a cell becomes specialised in structure and function by expressing particular genes and switching off others.
分化：细胞通过表达特定基因并关闭其他基因，从而在结构和功能上特化的过程。
Sperm Cell: A specialised male gamete. It has a long tail (flagellum) for swimming, an acrosome containing digestive enzymes to penetrate the egg, and many mitochondria to provide energy for movement.
精细胞：特化的雄性配子。它具有用于游动的长尾（鞭毛），含有消化酶的顶体用以穿透卵子，以及许多线粒体为运动提供能量。
Nerve Cell: A specialised cell with a long axon and branching dendrites to transmit electrical impulses rapidly over long distances. Many are covered by a myelin sheath that speeds up signal conduction.
神经细胞：特化细胞，具有长轴突和分支状树突，能快速长距离传递电信号。许多神经细胞覆盖有髓鞘，可加快信号传导。
Muscle Cell: Contains protein filaments that can contract and relax to cause movement. Abundant mitochondria provide energy for contraction.
肌肉细胞：含有可收缩和舒张以产生运动的蛋白丝。丰富的线粒体为收缩提供能量。
Root Hair Cell: A plant cell on the surface of roots with a long, hair-like projection that vastly increases the surface area for absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil. It has no chloroplasts.
根毛细胞：位于根表面的植物细胞，具有毛发状的长突起，极大地增加了吸收土壤中水分和矿物离子的表面积。它不含叶绿体。
Xylem Vessel: Dead, hollow tubes made of cells joined end-to-end, strengthened by lignin. They transport water and dissolved mineral ions upwards in plants.
木质部导管：由端对端的死细胞形成的空心管道，木质素加固，向上运输水分和溶解的矿物离子。
Phloem Cell: Living cells forming sieve tubes and companion cells. They transport dissolved sugars (translocation) up and down the plant.
韧皮部细胞：形成筛管和伴胞的活细胞，双向运输溶解的糖类（输导作用）。
6. Chromosomes and Mitosis | 染色体与有丝分裂
Chromosome: A thread-like structure made of tightly coiled DNA found in the nucleus. Human body cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
染色体：由紧密缠绕的DNA组成的线状结构，位于细胞核内。人体细胞含有46条染色体，排成23对。
Mitosis: A type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells. It is essential for growth, repair of damaged tissues, and asexual reproduction.
有丝分裂：产生两个遗传上相同的子细胞的细胞分裂方式。它对生物体生长、受损组织修复和无性生殖至关重要。
Cell Cycle: The series of stages a cell goes through as it grows and divides. The main stages are growth (increase in subcellular structures), DNA replication, mitosis (nucleus divides), and cytokinesis (cytoplasm splits).
细胞周期：细胞生长和分裂所经历的一系列阶段。主要阶段为生长（亚细胞结构数量增加）、DNA复制、有丝分裂（细胞核分裂）和胞质分裂（细胞质分裂）。
Daughter Cells: The two cells resulting from mitosis, each containing a full, identical copy of the parent cell’s DNA.
子细胞：有丝分裂产生的两个细胞，每个都含有与亲代细胞完全相同的全套DNA拷贝。
Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction that involves only one parent, producing offspring that are clones (genetically identical) via mitosis.
无性生殖：仅涉及一个亲本的生殖方式，通过有丝分裂产生克隆（遗传上相同的）后代。
7. Stem Cells | 干细胞
Stem Cell: An unspecialised cell that can divide by mitosis and then differentiate into different types of specialised cells under certain conditions.
干细胞：一种未特化的细胞，能通过有丝分裂增殖，并在特定条件下分化成不同类型的特化细胞。
Embryonic Stem Cell: A stem cell taken from an early embryo that can differentiate into any cell type. It is valuable for research and therapy but raises ethical concerns.
胚胎干细胞：取自早期胚胎的干细胞，能分化成任何类型的细胞。它对研究和治疗极有价值，但会引起伦理争议。
Adult Stem Cell: Found in certain tissues (e.g., bone marrow, skin), these stem cells can only differentiate into a limited range of related cell types, primarily for repair and maintenance.
成体干细胞：存在于特定组织（如骨髓、皮肤）中的干细胞，只能分化成有限的相关细胞类型，主要用于修复和维持。
Meristem: Regions of unspecialised cells in plants found at root and shoot tips, capable of dividing throughout the plant’s life, enabling continuous growth.
分生组织：植物根尖和茎尖等部位未特化细胞的区域，能终身分裂，使植物能够持续生长。
Therapeutic Cloning: A technique in which a patient’s nucleus is transferred to an egg cell to produce an embryo, from which stem cells are harvested. The resulting cells are genetically identical to the patient, reducing the risk of rejection in medical treatments.
治疗性克隆：将患者细胞核移植到卵细胞中产生胚胎，并从中获取干细胞的技术。得到的干细胞与患者基因相同，在医疗中可降低免疫排斥风险。
8. Diffusion | 扩散
Diffusion: The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient, until equilibrium is reached. It is a passive process requiring no energy.
扩散：粒子沿着浓度梯度从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动，直到达到平衡。这是一个被动过程，不需要能量。
Concentration Gradient: The difference in concentration of a substance between two areas. A steeper gradient results in a faster rate of diffusion.
浓度梯度：物质在两个区域之间的浓度差异。梯度越大，扩散速率越快。
Factors Affecting Diffusion Rate: Temperature (higher kinetic energy), concentration gradient (steeper = faster), surface area (larger = faster), and distance (shorter = faster).
影响扩散速率的因素：温度（动能越高越快）、浓度梯度（越陡越快）、表面积（越大越快）和扩散距离（越短越快）。
Examples of Diffusion in Living Organisms: Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood; carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. Urea diffuses from cells into blood for excretion.
生物体内扩散实例：氧气从肺泡扩散入血液；二氧化碳从血液扩散到肺泡。尿素从细胞扩散到血液以便排出。
9. Osmosis | 渗透
Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane.
渗透：水分子通过半透膜从高水势区域（稀溶液）向低水势区域（浓溶液）的净运动。
Partially Permeable Membrane: A membrane that allows some small molecules (e.g., water) to pass through but not larger solute molecules.
半透膜：允许某些小分子（如水）通过，但不允许较大的溶质分子通过的膜。
Turgid: A plant cell fully inflated with water, pressing the cytoplasm against the cell wall, making the cell firm. This provides support.
膨胀：植物细胞因充满水而膨大，细胞质紧贴细胞壁，使细胞坚挺，提供支撑。
Flaccid: A plant cell that has lost water, causing the cytoplasm to shrink away from the cell wall; the cell becomes limp.
松弛：植物细胞失水导致细胞质从细胞壁收缩，细胞变得萎蔫。
Plasmolysis: The state where the cytoplasm has pulled away from the cell wall completely due to water loss, often irreversible.
质壁分离：由于严重失水，细胞质完全脱离细胞壁的状态，通常不可逆。
Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic: A hypertonic solution has a lower water potential than the cell; a hypotonic solution has a higher water potential; an isotonic solution has the same water potential, so no net water movement occurs.
高渗、低渗和等渗：高渗溶液的水势低于细胞；低渗溶液水势高于细胞；等渗溶液水势相同，无净水移动。
10. Active Transport | 主动运输
Active Transport: The movement of particles across a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, against the concentration gradient. This process requires energy from cellular respiration and involves carrier proteins.
主动运输：粒子穿过细胞膜，从低浓度区域向高浓度区域逆浓度梯度的运动。此过程需要来自细胞呼吸的能量，并涉及载体蛋白。
Carrier Proteins: Membrane proteins that change shape to move specific molecules across the membrane using energy. They are essential for active transport.
载体蛋白：能改变形状以利用能量将特定分子运过膜的膜蛋白，是主动运输所必需的。
Examples of Active Transport: Uptake of mineral ions (e.g., nitrate ions) from dilute soil into root hair cells. Absorption of glucose from the gut lumen into the villi, even when glucose concentration is lower in the gut.
主动运输实例：根毛细胞从稀薄的土壤
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