📚 GCSE AQA Business: Formula Summary Handbook | GCSE AQA 商务：公式汇总手册
Mastering business formulas is essential for success in the AQA GCSE Business exams. This handbook brings together every key formula you need to know across finance, operations and human resources. Use it alongside past paper practice to sharpen your quantitative skills and boost your confidence for Paper 1 and Paper 2.
掌握商务公式是 AQA GCSE 商务考试成功的关键。本手册汇集了财务、运营和人力资源三大板块的所有核心公式。结合历年真题练习，它能帮助你强化定量分析能力，在卷一卷二中充满信心。
1. Revenue, Costs and Profit | 收入、成本与利润
All businesses need to understand basic financial flows. Revenue comes from sales, costs arise from running the business, and profit is what remains – the ultimate reward for taking risks.
任何企业都必须理解基本的财务流动。收入来自销售，成本产生于经营过程，利润则是扣除成本后的剩余，是承担风险的最终回报。
Revenue (£) = Selling price per unit × Quantity sold
Revenue measures the total money a business receives from selling its goods or services in a given period. It is sometimes called sales turnover or sales revenue.
收入衡量企业在特定时期内通过销售商品或服务所获得的总金额，有时也称为营业额或销售收入。
Total costs (£) = Total fixed costs + Total variable costs
Fixed costs do not change with output (e.g. rent, salaries), while variable costs rise or fall directly with production (e.g. raw materials, packaging). Total costs must be deducted from revenue to find profit.
固定成本不随产量变化（如租金、工资），可变成本则直接随产量增减（如原材料、包装）。总收入扣除总成本后得到利润。
Profit (£) = Total revenue – Total costs
Profit can be positive (a surplus) or negative (a loss). It is the key measure of business success and is essential for survival, growth and rewarding owners.
利润可以是正数（盈余）或负数（亏损）。它是衡量企业成功的关键指标，对生存、增长和回报所有者至关重要。
2. Profit Margins and ROCE | 利润率与资本回报率
Profit figures alone can be misleading. Profit margins express profit as a percentage of revenue, making comparisons easier between periods or businesses. Return on capital employed (ROCE) shows how efficiently a business uses its long-term funding.
仅凭利润绝对数可能产生误解。利润率将利润表示为收入的百分比，便于进行跨时期或企业间的比较。资本回报率 (ROCE) 则反映企业使用长期资金的效率。
Gross profit margin (%) = (Gross profit / Sales revenue) × 100
Gross profit is sales revenue minus the cost of sales (direct costs of making the product). This margin highlights how much of each £1 of sales is left after covering direct production costs.
毛利润为销售收入减去销售成本（生产产品的直接成本）。毛利率揭示每 1 英镑销售收入在扣除生产直接成本后还剩余多少。
Net profit margin (%) = (Net profit / Sales revenue) × 100
Net profit is the profit after all expenses (including overheads, interest and tax) have been deducted. The net profit margin is a crucial indicator of overall profitability.
净利润是扣除所有费用（包括间接费用、利息和税款）后的剩余利润。净利润率是衡量整体盈利能力的关键指标。
ROCE (%) = (Operating profit / Capital employed) × 100
Operating profit (profit before interest and tax) relates to the capital invested by shareholders and lenders. A higher ROCE suggests more efficient use of capital.
营业利润（息税前利润）与股东和贷款人投入的资本进行比较。较高的 ROCE 表明资本使用效率更高。
3. Break-even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
Break-even analysis helps a business know how many units it must sell to cover all its costs. It is a vital planning tool when launching new products or making investment decisions.
盈亏平衡分析帮助企业了解需要销售多少单位产品才能覆盖所有成本。它是推出新产品或作出投资决策时的重要规划工具。
Break-even output (units) = Fixed costs / (Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit)
The denominator is the contribution per unit (the amount each sale contributes to covering fixed costs). At break-even point, total revenue equals total costs and the business makes neither profit nor loss.
分母为单位贡献毛利（每笔销售用于覆盖固定成本的金额）。在盈亏平衡点，总收入等于总成本，企业既不盈利也不亏损。
Break-even sales revenue (£) = Break-even output × Selling price per unit
Once you know the break-even quantity, you can calculate the corresponding sales revenue to set sales targets.
知道盈亏平衡产量后，即可计算出相应的销售收入，用于设定销售目标。
Margin of safety (units) = Actual or budgeted output – Break-even output
The margin of safety shows how far sales can fall before the business reaches its break-even point. A larger margin gives greater protection against a downturn.
安全边际表示在达到盈亏平衡点之前，销售量可以下降多少。较大的安全边际能提供更好的下行保护。
4. Contribution | 贡献毛利
Contribution helps managers make short-term decisions, such as whether to accept a special order or drop a product. It focuses on the difference between selling price and variable costs.
贡献毛利有助于管理者进行短期决策，例如是否接受特殊订单或停产某产品。它关注的是售价与可变成本之间的差额。
Contribution per unit (£) = Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit
This shows how much each unit sold contributes towards fixed costs and profit. Products with higher contribution per unit are generally more attractive.
它表明每销售一单位产品能为固定成本和利润贡献多少金额。单位贡献毛利越高的产品通常越有吸引力。
Total contribution (£) = Total revenue – Total variable costs
Alternatively, total contribution can be calculated as contribution per unit multiplied by the number of units sold. Total contribution first pays fixed costs, with the remainder being profit.
总贡献毛利也可通过单位贡献毛利乘以销售数量计算。总贡献首先用于支付固定成本，剩余部分即为利润。
5. Cash Flow | 现金流量
Cash flow is the movement of money into and out of a business. A profitable business can still fail if it runs out of cash. Forecasting cash flow helps to plan for liquidity and avoid cash shortages.
现金流量是资金流入和流出企业的运动。盈利企业如果耗尽现金仍可能倒闭。现金流量预测有助于规划现金流，避免现金短缺。
Net cash flow (£) = Total cash inflows – Total cash outflows
In a given month, net cash flow shows whether the business has more cash coming in than going out. A positive figure means cash has increased; a negative figure means cash has decreased.
在特定月份，现金净流量显示企业现金流入是否大于流出。正值表示现金增加，负值表示现金减少。
Closing balance (£) = Opening balance + Net cash flow
The closing balance of one month becomes the opening balance for the next. Monitoring closing balances allows managers to spot potential overdrafts or cash surpluses in advance.
某个月的期末余额即下个月的期初余额。监控期末余额可让管理者提前发现潜在的透支或现金盈余。
6. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios indicate a firm’s ability to meet its short-term debts as they fall due. They are essential for suppliers, lenders and managers who need to be sure the business can pay its way.
流动性比率反映企业偿还到期短期债务的能力。对供应商、贷款人和管理者而言，确保企业能支付到期款项至关重要。
Current ratio = Current assets / Current liabilities
Current assets include cash, receivables and inventory. Current liabilities include short-term payables and overdrafts. A ratio of 1.5:1 to 2:1 is often considered healthy, but this varies by industry.
流动资产包括现金、应收账款和存货。流动负债包括短期应付款和透支。一般认为 1.5:1 至 2:1 的流动比率较为健康，但因行业而异。
Acid test ratio = (Current assets – Inventories) / Current liabilities
The acid test ratio (or quick ratio) removes inventory because it may take longer to sell. It shows whether a business could pay its immediate debts using only its most liquid assets.
速动比率（酸性测试比率）剔除了存货，因为存货变现通常需要更长时间。它反映企业仅凭最具流动性的资产能否偿还即时债务。
7. Average Rate of Return (ARR) | 平均收益率
Average rate of return is used to evaluate investment projects. It compares the average annual profit from an investment with its initial cost, expressed as a percentage. The higher the ARR, the more attractive the project tends to be.
平均收益率用于评估投资项目。它将投资带来的平均年利润与初始投资成本进行百分比比较。平均收益率越高，项目通常越具吸引力。
ARR (%) = (Average annual profit / Initial investment cost) × 100
Average annual profit is the total expected profit over the project’s life divided by the number of years. Always use the initial investment, not an average value, unless the question specifies otherwise.
平均年利润为项目有效期内的预期总利润除以年数。除非题目另有说明，一律使用初始投资额，而非平均价值。
8. Unit Costs and Efficiency | 单位成本与效率
Understanding unit costs helps a business price its products and control expenses. Efficiency measures such as productivity and capacity utilisation show how well resources are being used.
了解单位成本有助于企业为产品定价并控制费用。生产率和产能利用率等效率指标则表明资源的利用状况。
Unit cost (£) = Total costs / Number of units produced
Unit cost falls when total costs are spread over a higher output, showing economies of scale. It rises when costs increase or output falls.
当总成本分摊到更高产量时，单位成本会下降，体现规模经济。成本上升或产量下降时，单位成本则会上升。
Labour productivity = Output per period / Number of employees
Productivity can be measured in physical units or value terms. Improving productivity means producing more with the same or fewer workers, which reduces unit labour costs.
生产率可以按实物单位或价值量衡量。提高生产率意味着以同样或更少的员工生产出更多产品，从而降低单位人工成本。
Capacity utilisation (%) = (Actual output / Maximum possible output) × 100
This ratio shows how much of a factory’s or service’s capacity is being used. Low utilisation suggests spare capacity and higher fixed costs per unit; very high utilisation may strain resources.
该比率反映工厂或服务的产能利用程度。利用率低意味着产能闲置、单位固定成本偏高；利用率极高则可能造成资源紧张。
9. Human Resource Indicators | 人力资源指标
People are often the most valuable asset, so monitoring workforce data helps managers make informed HR decisions. Two widely used indicators are labour turnover and retention rate.
员工往往是最宝贵的资产，因此监控人力数据有助于管理者做出明智的人力资源决策。员工流失率和保留率是两个常用指标。
Labour turnover (%) = (Number of staff leaving during a period / Average number of staff) × 100
High labour turnover can indicate low morale, poor pay or weak management. It also raises recruitment and training costs, which can harm productivity.
员工流失率高可能意味着士气低落、薪酬不佳或管理不力。它还会增加招聘和培训成本，进而损害生产率。
Retention rate (%) = (Number of staff who stay over a period / Average number of staff) × 100
Retention rate is the flip side of turnover. A high retention rate suggests a stable, satisfied workforce and can be a sign of strong company culture.
保留率是流失率的反面。高保留率表明员工队伍稳定、满意度高，往往是强大企业文化的体现。
10. Quick Reference Formula Table | 公式速查表
This compact table gathers every formula in one place for last-minute revision. Print it out or keep it on your phone.
这张紧凑的表格将所有公式汇总在一起，方便考前最后复习。你可以打印出来或保存在手机上。
| Formula Name 公式名称 | Formula 公式 |
|---|---|
| Revenue 收入 | Selling price per unit × Quantity sold |
| Total costs 总成本 | Fixed costs + Variable costs |
| Profit 利润 | Total revenue – Total costs |
| Gross profit margin 毛利率 | (Gross profit / Sales revenue) × 100 |
| Net profit margin 净利润率 | (Net profit / Sales revenue) × 100 |
| ROCE 资本回报率 | (Operating profit / Capital employed) × 100 |
| Break-even output 盈亏平衡产量 | Fixed costs / (Selling price – Variable cost per unit) |
| Margin of safety 安全边际 | Actual output – Break-even output |
| Contribution per unit 单位贡献毛利 | Selling price – Variable cost per unit |
| Total contribution 总贡献毛利 | Total revenue – Total variable costs |
| Net cash flow 现金净流量 | Cash inflows – Cash outflows |
| Closing balance 期末余额 | Opening balance + Net cash flow |
| Current ratio 流动比率 | Current assets / Current liabilities |
| Acid test ratio 速动比率 | (Current assets – Inventories) / Current liabilities |
| ARR 平均收益率 | (Average annual profit / Initial investment) × 100 |
| Unit cost 单位成本 | Total costs / Units produced |
| Labour productivity 劳动生产率 | Output / Number of employees |
| Capacity utilisation 产能利用率 | (Actual output / Maximum output) × 100 |
| Labour turnover 员工流失率 | (Staff leaving / Average staff) × 100 |
Use this table for active recall: cover one column and test yourself. Repeating this regularly will embed the formulas in your memory before the exam.
利用此表进行主动回忆：遮住一列自我测试。定期重复能帮你将公式牢固地记在脑海里，从容应对考试。
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