📚 GCSE Physics: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE 物理：期末复习提纲
As your GCSE Physics exam approaches, a clear and organised revision checklist can make all the difference. This guide covers the essential topics, key equations, required practicals, and common pitfalls – everything you need to review before the final paper. Use it to structure your revision and test your understanding, section by section.
随着 GCSE 物理考试的临近，一份清晰有条理的复习提纲至关重要。本指南涵盖了核心主题、关键公式、必做实验以及常见误区——你在期末试卷前需要回顾的全部内容。用它来规划复习节奏，逐节检验自己的掌握程度。
1. Energy Stores and Transfers | 能量储存与转移
Energy is a scalar quantity measured in joules (J). It can be stored in kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal (internal), chemical, nuclear, magnetic and electrostatic forms. All energy stores are linked by transfer pathways.
能量是一个标量，单位为焦耳（J）。它可以储存在动能、重力势能、弹性势能、热能（内能）、化学能、核能、磁能和静电等不同形式中。所有能量储存都通过转移路径相互关联。
Energy is transferred mechanically (by a force doing work), electrically (work done by moving charges), by heating (temperature difference) or by radiation (light and sound). No energy is created or destroyed in a closed system; the total energy is conserved.
能量通过机械做功（力做功）、电做功（电荷移动）、加热（温差）或辐射（光和声）进行转移。在封闭系统中能量既不会被创造也不会被消灭，总能量守恒。
Eₖ = ½ m v² Ep = m g h P = E / t
Kinetic energy depends on mass and the square of speed; gravitational potential energy depends on mass, height and gravitational field strength. Power is the rate of energy transfer or work done.
动能取决于质量和速度的平方；重力势能取决于质量、高度和重力场强度。功率是能量转移或做功的速率。
Efficiency compares useful output with total input, often expressed as a percentage. No device can be 100% efficient because energy is always dissipated as thermal energy.
效率比较有用输出与总输入，常以百分比表示。没有任何设备能达到 100% 效率，因为总有能量以热能形式散失。
2. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Quantities in motion can be scalar (distance, speed) or vector (displacement, velocity, acceleration). Vectors have both magnitude and direction.
运动学中的物理量可分为标量（路程、速率）和矢量（位移、速度、加速度）。矢量既有大小又有方向。
v = s / t a = Δv / t
Average speed is distance over time; acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Negative acceleration means slowing down.
平均速率等于路程除以时间；加速度是速度的变化率。负加速度表示减速。
Newton’s second law links resultant force, mass and acceleration: F = m a. Weight is a force due to gravity: W = m g. For an object in free fall near Earth’s surface, g ≈ 9.8 m/s².
牛顿第二定律将合力、质量和加速度联系在一起。重量是重力产生的力：W = m g。在地表附近自由落体时，g 约等于 9.8 m/s²。
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Thinking distance is affected by tiredness, alcohol and distractions; braking distance depends on speed, road conditions, tyres and brakes.
刹车距离 = 思维距离 + 制动距离。思维距离受疲劳、酒精和分心影响；制动距离取决于车速、路面状况、轮胎和刹车。
The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force, up to the limit of proportionality. Hooke’s law: F = k x, where k is the spring constant.
在弹性限度内，弹簧的伸长量与施加的力成正比，符合胡克定律 F = k x，k 为弹簧常数。
3. Waves: Properties and Types | 波的特性与类型
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In transverse waves, oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer (e.g. light, water waves). In longitudinal waves, oscillations are parallel (e.g. sound).
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波的振动方向与能量传递方向垂直（如光波、水波）。纵波的振动方向与能量传递方向平行（如声波）。
v = f λ
Wave speed equals frequency × wavelength. The period of a wave is T = 1/f.
波速等于频率乘以波长。波的周期 T = 1/f。
The electromagnetic spectrum, in order of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, is: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma. All EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum (3.0 × 10⁸ m/s).
电磁波谱按波长递减、频率递增的顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中速度相同（3.0 × 10⁸ m/s）。
Reflection follows the law: angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Refraction is the change of direction when a wave enters a different medium, due to change in speed. Sound waves can be reflected as echoes and can be used in ultrasound imaging.
反射遵守定律：入射角等于反射角。折射是波进入不同介质时因速度改变而发生的方向变化。声波可反射形成回声，并可用于超声波成像。
4. Electricity: Circuits and Components | 电：电路与元件
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge: I = Q / t. Potential difference (voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W / Q. Resistance opposes current flow: R = V / I.
电流是电荷流动的速率：I = Q / t。电势差（电压）是每单位电荷转移的能量：V = W / Q。电阻阻碍电流：R = V / I。
In series circuits, current is the same everywhere, total resistance adds up, and the supply voltage is shared. In parallel circuits, the current splits across branches, total resistance decreases, and each branch receives the full supply voltage.
在串联电路中，电流处处相等，总电阻相加，电源电压被分压。在并联电路中，电流在支路中分流，总电阻减小，每条支路都获得完整电源电压。
Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to potential difference for a resistor at constant temperature. The I–V graphs for a filament lamp and a diode are non-linear due to heating effects and one-way conduction.
欧姆定律指出，在恒定温度下，通过电阻器的电流与电势差成正比。由于热效应和单向导电性，小灯泡和二极管的 I-V 特性曲线是非线性的。
Electrical power: P = I V = I² R = V² / R. Energy transferred: E = P t = I V t. Mains electricity in the UK is an alternating current (a.c.) at 230 V and 50 Hz. A plug contains a live wire (brown), neutral wire (blue) and earth wire (green/yellow) for safety.
电功率：P = I V = I² R = V² / R。电能：E = P t = I V t。英国市电为交流电，230 V，50 Hz。插头包含火线（棕色）、零线（蓝色）和地线（绿/黄双色）以确保安全。
5. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁与电磁
Permanent magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel, unlike attract. The Earth has a magnetic field that protects us from solar particles.
永久磁铁有北极和南极；同名极相斥，异名极相吸。地球拥有磁场，保护我们免受太阳粒子的伤害。
When a current flows through a wire, a magnetic field is produced. A solenoid (coil of wire) produces a strong, uniform field inside – an electromagnet that can be switched on and off.
当电流通过导线时会产生磁场。螺线管（线圈）内部产生强而均匀的磁场——可随时开关的电磁铁。
The motor effect occurs when a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field. Fleming’s left-hand rule gives the direction of force: F = B I L (for a wire perpendicular to the field).
载流导线置于磁场中时会产生电动机效应。弗莱明左手定则给出力的方向，力的大小 F = B I L（当导线与磁场垂直时）。
Electromagnetic induction: if a wire moves relative to a magnetic field, or the field changes, a potential difference is induced. This is the generator effect, used in alternators and dynamos. A transformer changes the potential difference of an a.c. supply: Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ. For an ideal transformer, input power equals output power.
电磁感应：当导线相对磁场运动或磁场变化时，会感应出电势差。这就是发电机效应，应用于交流发电机和直流发电机。变压器改变交流电的电压：Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ。理想变压器中，输入功率等于输出功率。
6. Particle Model of Matter | 物质粒子模型
Matter is made of tiny particles. The arrangement and motion of particles differ in solids, liquids and gases, explaining their properties such as density and ability to flow.
物质由微小的粒子构成。固态、液态和气态中粒子的排列和运动各不相同，这解释了它们的密度和流动性等性质。
ρ = m / V
Density is mass per unit volume. An object floats if its density is less than that of the fluid.
密度是单位体积的质量。物体的密度小于流体时就会漂浮。
Internal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of particles. Heating raises temperature unless a change of state occurs. The energy needed to change temperature is Q = m c Δθ, where c is specific heat capacity.
内能是粒子动能和势能的总和。加热会升高温度，除非发生了状态变化。改变温度所需能量为 Q = m c Δθ，c 是比热容。
Specific latent heat of fusion (Lf) and vaporisation (Lv) govern energy changes during melting/freezing and boiling/condensing: Q = m L. Temperature stays constant during a change of state.
熔化比潜热（Lf）和汽化比潜热（Lv）分别描述熔化/凝固和沸腾/冷凝过程中的能量变化：Q = m L。状态改变期间温度保持不变。
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume: P₁ V₁ = P₂ V₂. Increasing temperature at constant volume raises pressure.
对于恒温下的一定质量气体，压强与体积成反比：P₁ V₁ = P₂ V₂。体积不变时升高温度会增大压强。
7. Atomic Structure and Radioactivity | 原子结构与放射性
The nuclear model of the atom consists of a small, dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels. The atomic number is the number of protons; mass number is protons plus neutrons.
原子的核式模型由一个致密的小原子核（含质子和中子）以及分层排布的电子组成。原子序数等于质子数，质量数等于质子数加中子数。
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are unstable and decay, emitting ionising radiation.
同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的原子。某些同位素不稳定，会通过衰变放出电离辐射。
Alpha (α) particles are helium nuclei (2p + 2n), highly ionising but easily stopped. Beta (β) particles are fast electrons, moderately ionising, stopped by a few mm of aluminium. Gamma (γ) rays are electromagnetic waves, weakly ionising but very penetrating, reduced by thick lead.
α 粒子是氦原子核（2 个质子 + 2 个中子），电离能力强但易被阻挡；β 粒子是高速电子，电离能力中等，几毫米铝可阻挡；γ 射线是电磁波，电离能力弱但穿透力极强，需厚铅板减弱。
Radioactive decay is random and measured by activity (becquerels, Bq). Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay, or for the count rate to halve.
放射性衰变是随机的，用活度（贝克勒尔，Bq）衡量。半衰期是样本中一半放射性核发生衰变、或计数率减半所需的时间。
Nuclear fission splits heavy nuclei, releasing energy; nuclear fusion joins light nuclei, releasing even more energy. Fusion powers stars.
核裂变使重核分裂，释放能量；核聚变使轻核聚合，释放更大能量。聚变是恒星的能量来源。
8. Space Physics | 空间物理
Our Solar System includes the Sun, eight planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids and comets. Planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths; gravity provides the centripetal force.
我们的太阳系包括太阳、八大行星、矮行星、卫星、小行星和彗星。行星沿椭圆轨道绕太阳运行，引力提供向心力。
Stars form from clouds of gas and dust (nebulae) that collapse under gravity. A main-sequence star fuses hydrogen into helium. The Sun is currently a main-sequence star.
恒星由气体和尘埃云（星云）在引力作用下坍缩形成。主序星内部氢聚变为氦。太阳目前是一颗主序星。
After the main sequence, a low-mass star becomes a red giant, then a white dwarf. A high-mass star becomes a red supergiant, then explodes in a supernova, leaving a neutron star or black hole.
主序阶段后，低质量恒星变为红巨星，再演化为白矮星；大质量恒星变为红超巨星，随后发生超新星爆炸，遗留下中子星或黑洞。
Observations show that most galaxies are moving away from us; light from them is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. This cosmological redshift provides evidence for an expanding Universe and the Big Bang theory.
观测表明大多数星系正在远离我们，其光谱向红端移动。这种宇宙学红移为宇宙膨胀和大爆炸理论提供了证据。
9. Required Practical Skills | 必备实验技能
You must be able to describe, analyse and evaluate key practicals, including: measuring density of regular solids and liquids; investigating springs (Hooke’s law); determining the resistance of a wire and I–V characteristics of components; measuring the speed of waves in water and a solid; investigating specific heat capacity; and studying thermal radiation (Leslie’s cube).
你必须能够描述、分析和评估重要实验，包括：测量规则固体和液体的密度；探究弹簧（胡克定律）；测定导线电阻和元件的 I-V 特性；测量水波和固体中的波速；探究比热容；以及研究热辐射（莱斯利立方体）。
Always identify independent, dependent and control variables. Use repeated readings, calculate means and consider uncertainty. Anomalous results should be identified and explained where possible.
始终明确自变量、因变量和控制变量。采取重复读数、计算平均值并考虑不确定度。应识别异常结果并尽可能予以解释。
Be precise about resolution and accuracy: a smaller interval on a measuring instrument improves resolution; accuracy depends on calibration and zero errors.
要精确区分分辨率与准确度：测量仪器刻度间隔越小，分辨率越高；准确度则取决于校准和零点误差。
When planning a method, minimise energy dissipation to the surroundings and ensure apparatus is set up safely. Practise drawing valid conclusions from data, relating them to the relevant equation.
在设计实验方法时，尽量减少能量向周围环境耗散，确保装置安全。练习从数据中得出有效结论，并联系相关公式。
10. Exam Tips and Common Misconceptions | 考试技巧与常见误区
Read every question twice, paying attention to command words such as ‘explain’, ‘describe’ or ‘compare’. Show all your working in calculations; missing units or significant figures can cost marks.
每道题审题两遍，注意指令词如“解释”、“描述”或“比较”。计算题要展示全部步骤，遗忘单位或有效数字会失分。
A frequent mistake is confusing energy stores with transfers: energy is stored, not ‘used’ or ‘lost’. Always refer to specific stores and pathways.
常见错误是把能量储存与转移混为一谈：能量是储存的，不是“用掉”或“丢失”的。答题时务必指明具体的能量储存类型和转移路径。
In electricity, students often think current is ‘used up’ in a circuit. Current is conserved in series; energy is transferred, not charge destroyed. Also, voltage in parallel branches is equal, not shared.
在电学中，学生常误以为电流在电路中被“消耗”。串联电路中电流处处相等，被转移的是能量而非电荷。并联支路两端电压相等，并非分压。
For motion graphs, remember: the gradient of a distance–time graph is speed; the gradient of a velocity–time graph is acceleration, and the area under it represents displacement travelled.
关于运动图像：距离-时间图像的斜率表示速率；速度-时间图像的斜率是加速度，其下方围成的面积代表位移。
When using equations, check that you are substituting values consistently. For example, use speed not velocity in KE = ½ m v², and always square the speed. Weight and mass are not the same; weight is a force acting on mass due to gravity.
使用公式时要确保代入一致。例如动能公式中，要用速度的大小并平方。重量和质量不同，重量是由于重力作用在质量上的力。
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