📚 IB English: Formula Handbook | IB 英语：公式汇总手册
Every IB English student, whether taking Language and Literature or Literature, needs a reliable set of analytical frameworks, or ‘formulas’, to unpack texts and construct cogent arguments. This handbook compiles essential paragraph models, rhetorical tools, literary devices, and comparative structures that are indispensable for Paper 1, Paper 2, and the Individual Oral. Mastering these formulas will sharpen your close reading, elevate your commentary, and ensure your writing demonstrates the critical thinking IB examiners reward.
无论是学习语言与文学还是纯文学，每位 IB 英语学生都需要一套可靠的分析框架——即“公式”——来解读文本并构建有说服力的论证。本手册汇总了段落模型、修辞工具、文学手法和比较结构等核心架构，它们在 Paper 1、Paper 2 和个人口头评论中不可或缺。掌握这些公式能提升你的细读能力，提高评注质量，并让你的写作呈现出 IB 考官所看重的批判性思维。
1. PETAL Paragraph Structure | PETAL 段落结构
The PETAL framework is the most widely used analytical paragraph model in IB English. It breaks down textual analysis into five clear steps: Point, Evidence, Technique, Analysis, and Link. Begin with a topic sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph. Then, embed a short, precise quotation from the text. Identify the literary or rhetorical technique employed (e.g., metaphor, anaphora, synecdoche). Analyse the effect and purpose of that technique in context, exploring layers of meaning. Finally, link back to the thesis or transition to the next point, ensuring the argument stays cohesive.
PETAL 框架是 IB 英语中最广泛使用的分析段落模型。它将文本分析分解为五个清晰步骤：观点（Point）、证据（Evidence）、手法（Technique）、分析（Analysis）和联系（Link）。先用主题句陈述段落的主旨；然后嵌入一段简短、精准的引文；指出作者使用的文学或修辞手法（如隐喻、首语重复、提喻等）；在语境中分析该手法的效果和意图，挖掘多层含义；最后回扣论点或衔接到下一要点，确保论证连贯。
When revising, many candidates use the prompt: “The writer uses [technique] in [evidence] to [effect], which reinforces [point/theme].” This formulaic yet flexible sentence stem helps maintain focus on interpretation rather than plot summary. In IB assessments, the Analysis and Link steps carry the heaviest weight, so allocate more space to unpacking how language creates meaning.
复习时，许多考生使用这样的句式模板：“作者在 [证据] 中运用 [手法] 以实现 [效果]，从而强化 [观点/主题]。”这种公式化但灵活的句式有助于保持对阐释的关注，而非复述情节。在 IB 评估中，分析和联系环节权重最高，因此应分配更多篇幅探究语言如何创造意义。
2. PEEL Structure for Persuasive Writing | PEEL 说服性写作结构
PEEL (Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link) is another essential acronym, particularly useful for Paper 2 essays and the HL essay. A PEEL paragraph opens with a clear Point that directly addresses the essay question. Next, integrate Evidence from the text; this could be a quotation, a structural feature, or a specific device. The Explanation step requires you to interpret the evidence, showing how it supports your point and discussing its implications. Finally, the Link either ties the paragraph back to the overall thesis or bridges to the next argument.
PEEL（Point, Evidence, Explanation, Link）是另一核心缩略词，对 Paper 2 论文和 HL 论文尤其有用。PEEL 段落以清晰的观点开头，直接回应论文题目；接着融入文本证据，可以是引文、结构特征或特定手法；解释环节需要你阐释证据，说明它如何支持你的观点并讨论其隐含意义；最后的联系步骤将该段回扣整篇论文的主旨，或衔接到下一条论证。
The power of PEEL lies in its demand for sustained justification. Instead of merely listing devices, you must demonstrate a logical progression from evidence to complex interpretation. For Paper 2 comparative essays, you can adapt the Evidence and Explanation steps to work with two texts simultaneously, using phrases like “Similarly, Text B employs…” or “In contrast, Text B subverts this by…”.
PEEL 的力量在于它要求持续的论证。你不能仅仅罗列手法，而是必须呈现从证据到复杂阐释的逻辑推进。对于 Paper 2 的比较论文，你可以调整证据和解释步骤，同时涉及两个文本，使用“同样，文本 B 采用了……”或“相比之下，文本 B 通过……颠覆了这一点”等表述。
3. SOAPSTone for Rhetorical Analysis | SOAPSTone 修辞分析模型
SOAPSTone is a timeless acronym for dissecting persuasive or non-literary texts: Speaker, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Subject, Tone. Identify the voice and persona behind the text (Speaker) and the immediate context or event that prompted its creation (Occasion). Define the intended Audience and consider how the writer tailors language, appeals, and references to that group. State the Purpose explicitly—what the writer wants the audience to think, feel, or do. Summarise the Subject in a few words, and finally, map the Tone by collecting diction and syntactic clues.
SOAPSTone 是一个历久弥新的缩略模型，用于剖析说服性或非文学文本：说者（Speaker）、场合（Occasion）、受众（Audience）、目的（Purpose）、主题（Subject）、语气（Tone）。辨识文本背后的声音与人格面具（说者），以及促使其产生的直接语境或事件（场合）；界定目标受众，并思考作者如何为之调整语言、诉求与援引；明确表述目的——作者希望受众思考、感受或做什么；用几个词概括主题；最后，通过收集措辞和句式线索来描绘语气。
This model works brilliantly for IB Paper 1 guided textual analysis, especially for speeches, opinion articles, advertisements, and letters. A quick SOAPSTone annotation in the margins during the reading time gives you a ready-made thesis: “In this [occasion], the speaker addresses a [audience] to [purpose] regarding [subject], employing a [tone] that…” From there, you can delve into the rhetorical techniques that realise that purpose.
该模型非常适合 IB Paper 1 导引式文本分析，尤其是演讲、评论文章、广告和书信。在阅读时间内于页边速记 SOAPSTone 注释，便可得出成型论点：“在 [场合] 中，说者面向 [受众]，就 [主题] 达成 [目的]，采用 [语气]……”随后即可深入探讨实现该目的的修辞技巧。
4. TEEL and PEE Chains | TEEL 和 PEE 链
While similar to PETAL and PEEL, the TEEL (Topic sentence, Evidence, Explanation, Link) and PEE (Point, Evidence, Explanation) chains serve as foundational building blocks. PEE is often the first analytical structure taught: a simple yet effective chain where each piece of evidence is immediately explained. TEEL adds the crucial Link element, forcing you to consider coherence across the essay. In IB, experienced candidates often layer multiple PEE chains within a single TEEL paragraph, treating each point–evidence–explanation trio as a mini-cycle that builds toward the overall topic sentence.
虽然与 PETAL 和 PEEL 类似，TEEL（主题句、证据、解释、联系）和 PEE（观点、证据、解释）链是更基础的构建模块。PEE 通常是第一个学习的分析结构：简单但有效，每条证据立即跟上解释。TEEL 增加了关键的联系元素，迫使你考虑全文的连贯性。在 IB 中，有经验的考生常在单个 TEEL 段落中叠放多个 PEE 链，将每组观点—证据—解释的三连动作视为一个微型循环，汇聚成整体的主题句。
For weaker analyses, students tend to merely identify a device and move on. A robust PEE chain demands that the Explanation explores both the surface meaning and the deeper connotations, asking “Why this word? Why here? How does it affect the reader?” When you connect PEE chains with linking phrases such as “Building on this idea…” or “This is further complicated by…”, you naturally generate the Link component of TEEL.
较弱分析的问题在于，学生往往仅指出手法便草草了事。稳健的 PEE 链要求解释部分既探讨表层意义，也挖掘深层内涵，并追问“为什么用这个词？为什么用在此处？如何影响读者？”当你用“在此基础上……”或“这一点因……而变得更加复杂”等连接语将多个 PEE 链串联起来，便自然生成了 TEEL 的联系部分。
5. Key Literary Devices: A Handy Reference | 核心文学手法速查表
A command of literary terminology is essential for precise analysis. Below is a compact table of devices frequently encountered in IB set texts and unseen passages. Internalising these terms allows you to move beyond vague statements like “the writer uses strong language” and instead pinpoint “the plosive alliteration creates an aggressive auditory texture”.
掌握文学术语对精准分析至关重要。下表汇总了 IB 指定作品和非文学文本中频繁出现的手法。内化这些术语，你就能抛弃“作者用了强烈语言”之类模糊表述，转而锁定“爆破音头韵营造出侵略性的听觉质感”。
| Device / 手法 | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Metaphor / 隐喻 | Implied comparison without ‘like’ or ‘as’. | ‘Time is a thief.’ |
| Simile / 明喻 | Explicit comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’. | ‘Her smile was like sunshine.’ |
| Personification / 拟人 | Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects. | ‘The wind whispered through the trees.’ |
| Anaphora / 首语重复 | Deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the start of successive clauses. | ‘We shall fight… we shall fight…’ |
| Alliteration / 头韵 | Repetition of initial consonant sounds. | ‘Peter Piper picked a peck…’ |
| Enjambment / 跨行 | Continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line. | Often seen in poetry to create urgency. |
| Synecdoche / 提喻 | A part represents the whole or vice versa. | ‘All hands on deck’ (hands = sailors). |
When you reference a device, always connect it to the text’s broader purpose. Instead of “The poet uses enjambment,” write “The enjambment rushes the reader forward, mirroring the speaker’s uncontrollable grief.” This small shift transforms listing into genuine analysis.
引用手法时，务必将其与文本的宏观意图联系起来。不要写“诗人使用了跨行”，而应写“跨行推动读者急速向前，映照出说话者无法抑制的悲痛”。这一细微转变就能将罗列变为真正的分析。
6. Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, Logos | 修辞诉求：信、情、理
Aristotle’s triad of rhetorical appeals underpins virtually all persuasive writing analysed in IB. Ethos (ethical appeal) establishes the credibility and authority of the speaker – through professional credentials, personal experience, or a trustworthy tone. Pathos (emotional appeal) targets the audience’s feelings, using vivid imagery, anecdotes, and charged diction. Logos (logical appeal) constructs a reasoned argument with statistics, facts, and logical progression.
亚里士多德的修辞三诉求几乎是 IB 中所有说服性文本分析的基石。信（Ethos）通过专业资历、亲身经历或可信赖的语气建立说者的可信度与权威；情（Pathos）用生动的意象、轶事和富有感情色彩的措辞触动受众的情感；理（Logos）则通过数据、事实和逻辑推演构建理性论证。
Most texts blend all three, but identifying the dominant appeal can sharpen your thesis. A political speech might open with an ethos-building personal story, pivot to shocking statistics (logos), and conclude with a rousing emotional call to action (pathos). In your analysis, trace how the balance shifts and evaluate why the writer made those choices. For Paper 1, a strong opening sentence might be: “The columnist anchors her argument in ethos by referencing her two decades of fieldwork, before deploying a cascade of pathos-laden metaphors to galvanise her readership.”
多数文本混合三者，但识别主导诉求能使论点更加锋利。一篇政治演讲可能以建立“信”的个人故事开场，转而使用令人震惊的数据（理），最后以振奋人心的情感呼吁（情）收束。分析时，应追踪平衡点如何转移，并评估作者为何做出这些选择。在 Paper 1 中，有力的开头句可以是：“专栏作家通过提及二十年的实地工作锚定其‘信’，随后用一连串饱含‘情’的隐喻来激励读者群。”
7. Text Type Conventions | 文本类型惯例
IB exams demand that you recognise and comment on conventions unique to each text type. A speech uses direct address, rhetorical questions, and perorations; an opinion article relies on a compelling headline, byline, and a balanced counterargument before reaffirming the stance; an advertisement employs slogans, branding, and visual salience (if multimodal). Awareness of these expectations allows you to discuss how a writer conforms to or subverts the genre, a high-order thinking skill.
IB 考试要求你识别并评述每种文本类型特有的惯例。演讲使用直接称呼、反问和总结呼吁；评论文章依赖抓人眼球的标题、作者署名及在重申立场前呈现的平衡反论；广告运用口号、品牌突显以及多模态中的视觉凸显。意识到这些预期，你便能讨论作者如何遵循或颠覆文体，这属于高阶思维技能。
- Letter / 书信: Salutation, date, sign-off, personal pronoun ‘I’, direct address ‘you’.
- Speech / 演讲: Rhetorical questions, inclusive ‘we’, repetition, applause lines.
- Diary entry / 日记: Date, intimate tone, self-reflection, elliptical syntax.
- Blog / 博客: Informal register, hyperlinks, interactive ‘comment below’, emojis (in multimodal).
- Travel writing / 游记: Sensory imagery, personal anecdote, contrast between past and present.
Rather than merely labelling conventions, evaluate their effectiveness. For instance, “The diarist’s fragmented syntax mimics the disjointed nature of his anxiety” demonstrates perceptive analysis, while “The letter uses a sign-off” remains descriptive. Aim for the former.
不要仅仅给惯例贴标签，而是要评价其效果。例如，“日记作者的零碎句法模拟了他焦虑的紊乱本质”展示了敏锐的分析，而“这封信使用了结束语”则停留在描述层面。请以前者为目标。
8. Sensory Imagery – The Big Five | 感官意象五大类
Imagery is the lifeblood of literary effect. IB examiners expect you to classify images into the five senses: visual (sight), auditory (sound), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and tactile (touch). Going a step further, consider kinaesthetic imagery (movement) and organic imagery (internal sensations like hunger or fatigue) for more nuanced commentary.
意象是文学效果的命脉。IB 考官期望你按五感对意象进行分类：视觉（sight）、听觉（sound）、嗅觉（smell）、味觉（taste）和触觉（touch）。更进一步，还可考虑动觉意象（movement）和体觉意象（内部感觉，如饥饿或疲惫），使评注更加细腻。
| Type / 类型 | Prompts | Example from Literature |
|---|---|---|
| Visual | Colours, shapes, light, darkness, size | ‘The scarlet ibis fell dead from the tree.’ |
| Auditory | Pitch, volume, rhythm, silence, onomatopoeia | ‘The buzz of the chainsaw filled the air.’ |
| Olfactory | Pleasant or foul smells, memory triggers | ‘A gust of salt-stung and decay floated from the shore.’ |
| Gustatory | Sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami | ‘Each berry burst with a sour tang that puckered her lips.’ |
| Tactile | Texture, temperature, pressure | ‘The coarse wool scratched against his raw neck.’ |
When analysing imagery, ask: “What atmosphere does this cluster of images create? Are the senses intensified or subdued? Is there a dominant sense that reflects a character’s psychological state?” Tackling these questions ensures you discuss the effect, not just the identification.
分析意象时，要问：“这组意象营造了何种氛围？感官被强化还是抑制？是否存在反映人物心理状态的主导感官？”回答这些问题能确保你讨论效果，而非仅仅识别。
9. TAP and RAFT for Writing | 写作中的 TAP 与 RAFT
For written tasks such as the IB Paper 1 persuasive letter or the HL essay, TAP – Topic, Audience, Purpose – provides immediate clarity. Before you draft, define precisely what you are writing about, who will read it, and what change you want to effect. The RAFT extension (Role, Audience, Format, Topic) adds a layer of metacognition: what persona are you adopting? What format – letter, speech, blog – best achieves your aims?
对于 IB Paper 1 说服性信件或 HL 论文等写作任务，TAP——主题（Topic）、受众（Audience）、目的（Purpose）——能提供即时清晰度。下笔之前，明确你写什么、谁会读、你想促成何种改变。扩展而成的 RAFT（角色 Role、受众 Audience、格式 Format、主题 Topic）则增添了一层元认知：你将采取何种人格面具？哪种格式——书信、演讲、博客——最能达意？
Many candidates lose marks because their register or tone does not align with the defined audience. An article for teenagers should feature colloquial phrasing, contractions, and pop-culture references, while a formal report for a headteacher demands a sophisticated, impersonal register. Use the TAP/RAFT formula at the planning stage, and revisit it after writing to check for consistency.
许多考生因语域或语气与既定受众不符而失分。面向青少年的文章应当使用口语化表达、缩写形式和流行文化引用，而给校长的正式报告则要求复杂、非个人化的语域。在规划阶段运用 TAP/RAFT 公式，并在写完后复检以保持一致。
10. Comparative Analysis Formulas | 比较分析公式
Paper 2 requires you to compare and contrast two literary works. Two overarching structural formulas govern this: the block method and the point-by-point method. In the block approach, you analyse Text A thoroughly in one section, then Text B in the next, with a comparative thread woven through topic sentences. In the point-by-point method, each paragraph addresses a specific theme, device, or effect and discusses both texts within that paragraph.
Paper 2 要求比较和对比两部文学作品。两种宏观结构公式驾驭这一任务：板块法和逐点法。板块法中，你先在某个部分透彻分析文本 A，然后在另一部分分析文本 B，通过主题句编织比较线索；逐点法则让每个段落聚焦一个特定主题、手法或效果，并在该段内同时讨论两个文本。
The point-by-point formula is generally favoured for high-band essays because it forces constant interplay between texts. A typical paragraph might start: “Both Atwood and Ishiguro employ unreliable narrators to destabilise reader certainty. However, while Atwood’s protagonist gradually reveals her complicity, Ishiguro’s narrator remains enigmatic, suggesting…” Here, the connector “However, while…” instantly signals comparative thinking. T-charts made during the planning stage help visualise similarities and differences before you commit to a paragraph structure.
逐点法通常备受高分作文青睐，因为它迫使两个文本之间不断互动。典型的段落可以这样开始：“阿特伍德和石黑一雄都采用不可靠叙述者来动摇读者的确定感。然而，阿特伍德的主人公逐渐揭示自己的共谋，而石黑一雄的叙述者却始终神秘莫测，这表明……” 此处，“然而……而……”的连接词立刻传递出比较思维。规划阶段制作的 T 形表能在你确定段落结构前，直观呈现异同。
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