IGCSE AQA Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | IGCSE AQA 化学：期末复习提纲

📚 IGCSE AQA Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | IGCSE AQA 化学：期末复习提纲

This comprehensive revision checklist covers the core topics for the IGCSE AQA Chemistry course. Use it as a quick reference to review key concepts, equations, and practical skills before your end-of-term assessment.

这份全面的复习提纲涵盖了 IGCSE AQA 化学课程的核心主题。在期末评估前，用它作为快速参考，回顾关键概念、方程式和实验技能。

1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表

Atoms consist of a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels (shells). The atomic number (Z) equals the number of protons, and the mass number (A) equals the total number of protons plus neutrons.

原子由包含质子和中子的原子核以及按能级（电子层）排布的电子组成。原子序数（Z）等于质子数，质量数（A）等于质子数与中子数之和。

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. They exhibit identical chemical behaviour but may have different physical properties, such as density and boiling point.

同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同种元素原子。它们化学性质相同，但物理性质（如密度和沸点）可能不同。

Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. Groups (vertical columns) contain elements with the same number of outer-shell electrons, which determines their chemical properties. Periods (horizontal rows) indicate the number of occupied electron shells.

元素在周期表中按原子序数递增的顺序排列。族（纵列）中的元素具有相同的最外层电子数，这决定其化学性质。周期（横行）表示占据的电子层数。

Number of valence electrons = group number (for Groups 1–2 and 13–18)

最外层电子数 = 族序数（第1–2族和13–18族）

Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table and tend to lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Non-metals are on the right side and tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (anions). Transition metals, located in the central block, often form coloured compounds and can have variable oxidation states.

金属位于周期表左侧，易失去电子形成阳离子。非金属位于右侧，易获得电子形成阴离子。位于中间区域的过渡金属常形成有色化合物，并具有可变的氧化态。

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2. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构

Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. Metals lose electrons to become positively charged ions, while non-metals gain those electrons to become negatively charged ions. The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces, forming a giant ionic lattice.

离子键存在于金属和非金属之间。金属失去电子成为阳离子，非金属得到电子成为阴离子。相反电荷的离子通过强静电作用力结合在一起，形成巨型离子晶格。

Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the strong ionic bonds throughout the lattice. They conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved in water, as the ions are then free to move.

离子化合物因晶格中强大的离子键而具有高熔点和高沸点。它们仅在熔融或溶于水时导电，因为此时离子可以自由移动。

Covalent bonding involves the sharing of pairs of electrons between non-metal atoms. Simple molecular substances, such as water, carbon dioxide, and methane, consist of small molecules with weak intermolecular forces, resulting in low melting and boiling points.

共价键涉及非金属原子间共用电子对。简单分子物质，如水、二氧化碳和甲烷，由小分子组成，分子间作用力弱，因此熔点和沸点较低。

Giant covalent structures (macromolecules), like diamond, graphite, and silicon dioxide, have atoms linked by strong covalent bonds throughout the entire structure. Diamond is very hard and does not conduct electricity, whereas graphite has layers that can slide and contains delocalised electrons that allow it to conduct electricity.

巨型共价结构（大分子），如金刚石、石墨和二氧化硅，整个结构都由强共价键连接。金刚石极硬、不导电，而石墨具有可滑动的层并含有离域电子，故能导电。

Metallic bonding is described as a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons. This structure enables metals to conduct heat and electricity and to be malleable and ductile.

金属键被描述为阳离子金属离子被离域电子’海洋’包围的晶格。这种结构使金属能够导热、导电，并具有延展性。

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3. Formulae, Equations and Calculations | 化学式、方程式与计算

The relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) of an element is the average mass of its isotopes relative to 1/12th the mass of a carbon‑12 atom. The relative formula mass (Mᵣ) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in the formula.

元素的相对原子质量（Aᵣ）是其同位素平均质量与碳-12原子质量的1/12的比值。相对分子质量（Mᵣ）是化学式中所有原子相对原子质量之和。

One mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro constant). The mole is the unit used to connect mass, molar mass, and the number of particles.

一摩尔任何物质含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子（阿伏伽德罗常数）。摩尔是用于联系质量、摩尔质量和粒子数的单位。

moles (n) = mass (m) / molar mass (M)

摩尔数（n）= 质量（m）/ 摩尔质量（M）

Chemical equations must be balanced so that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides. State symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq) indicate solid, liquid, gas and aqueous solution.

化学方程式必须配平，使每种元素的原子数目在反应前后相等。状态符号 (s)、(l)、(g) 和 (aq) 分别表示固态、液态、气态和水溶液。

Empirical formula is the simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms in a compound. The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms in a molecule. Reacting mass calculations and percentage yield calculations are essential for quantitative chemistry.

最简式（实验式）是化合物中原子数目最简单的整数比。分子式表示分子中原子的实际数目。反应物质量计算和产率百分数计算是定量化学的基础。

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4. Chemical Changes and Reactivity | 化学变化与反应性

Metals can be placed in an order of reactivity based on their reactions with water, dilute acid, and displacement reactions. The reactivity series from most to least reactive typically includes: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, (carbon), zinc, iron, (hydrogen), copper, silver, gold.

根据金属与水、稀酸的反应以及置换反应，可以将金属排列成反应性顺序。常见的反应活性从高到低为：钾、钠、钙、镁、铝、(碳)、锌、铁、(氢)、铜、银、金。

A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its compound in aqueous solution. For example, zinc displaces copper from copper sulfate solution: Zn(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + Cu(s).

活动性强的金属可从溶液中较不活泼金属的化合物中置换出该金属。例如，锌从硫酸铜溶液中置换出铜：Zn(s) + CuSO₄(aq) → ZnSO₄(aq) + Cu(s)。

Redox (reduction–oxidation) reactions involve the transfer of electrons. Oxidation is the loss of electrons, and reduction is the gain of electrons. A useful mnemonic is ‘OIL RIG’ — Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.

氧化还原反应涉及电子转移。氧化是失去电子，还原是得到电子。有用的助记是’OIL RIG’——氧化失电子，还原得电子。

In terms of oxygen, oxidation is the gain of oxygen and reduction is the loss of oxygen. Iron rusting is a slow oxidation that requires both oxygen and water.

从氧的角度，氧化是得氧的过程，还原是失氧的过程。铁生锈是需要氧气和水的缓慢氧化过程。

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5. Energy Changes and Rates of Reaction | 能量变化与反应速率

Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature rise (e.g., combustion, neutralisation). Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature drop (e.g., thermal decomposition of carbonates).

放热反应将能量传递给周围环境，导致温度升高（如燃烧、中和反应）。吸热反应从周围环境吸收能量，导致温度下降（如碳酸盐的热分解）。

The energy change in a reaction can be shown on an energy profile diagram. The activation energy (Eₐ) is the minimum energy needed for a reaction to occur. Catalysts lower the activation energy, providing an alternative reaction pathway.

反应的能量变化可用能量轮廓图表示。活化能（Eₐ）是反应发生所需的最小能量。催化剂通过提供替代反应路径来降低活化能。

The rate of a chemical reaction can be increased by raising the temperature, increasing the concentration of reactants in solution, increasing the pressure of gaseous reactants, increasing the surface area of solid reactants, or adding a suitable catalyst.

提高反应速率的方法有：升高温度、增大反应物溶液浓度、增大气态反应物的压强、增大固态反应物的表面积，或加入合适的催化剂。

Collision theory explains that reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy (≥ Eₐ) and correct orientation. Increasing the frequency of successful collisions increases the reaction rate.

碰撞理论指出，只有当粒子以足够能量（≥ Eₐ）和正确取向碰撞时，反应才会发生。增加有效碰撞的频率就能提高反应速率。

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6. Electrochemistry | 电化学

Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound by passing direct current through it in molten state or in solution. Positive ions migrate to the cathode (negative electrode) to gain electrons (reduction), and negative ions migrate to the anode (positive electrode) to lose electrons (oxidation).

电解是通过对熔融态或溶液中的离子化合物通直流电使其分解的过程。阳离子移向阴极（负极）获得电子（还原），阴离子移向阳极（正极）失去电子（氧化）。

In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, the products can be affected by the relative reactivity of the ions and the presence of water. At the cathode, the less reactive cation (often H⁺ from water) is discharged if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen. At the anode, halide ions are discharged in preference to hydroxide ions, unless the halide is dilute.

电解水溶液时，产物受离子相对活性和水的影响。在阴极，如果金属比氢活泼，优先放电的是较不活泼的阳离子（通常是水中的H⁺）。在阳极，卤离子比氢氧根离子优先放电，除非卤离子浓度很低。

Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (brine) produces hydrogen at the cathode, chlorine at the anode, and leaves sodium hydroxide in solution. Electroplating uses electrolysis to coat an object with a thin layer of metal, e.g., silver plating a copper object.

电解氯化钠溶液（盐水）在阴极产生氢气，阳极产生氯气，溶液中留下氢氧化钠。电镀利用电解在物体表面镀上一层薄金属，例如在铜上镀银。

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7. Acids, Bases and Salts | 酸、碱与盐

Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions (H⁺) in aqueous solution. Common laboratory acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃). Bases are substances that neutralise acids, producing a salt and water. Alkalis are soluble bases that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water.

酸是在水溶液中产生氢离子（H⁺）的物质。实验室常用酸有盐酸（HCl）、硫酸（H₂SO₄）和硝酸（HNO₃）。碱是能中和酸、生成盐和水的物质。可溶性碱在水溶液中释放氢氧根离子（OH⁻），称为碱液。

The pH scale indicates the acidity or alkalinity of a solution: pH < 7 is acidic, pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 is alkaline. Neutralisation reaction: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l).

pH 值表示溶液的酸碱度：pH < 7 为酸性，pH = 7 为中性，pH > 7 为碱性。中和反应：H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)。

Salts are formed when the hydrogen ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion. Soluble salts can be prepared by reacting an acid with a metal, a metal oxide, a metal hydroxide or a metal carbonate. Insoluble salts can be prepared by precipitation.

酸中氢离子被金属离子或铵根离子取代时生成盐。可溶性盐可通过酸与金属、金属氧化物、金属氢氧化物或金属碳酸盐反应制取。不溶性盐可通过沉淀反应制取。

Making a soluble salt often involves filtration and crystallisation. A pure, dry sample of a salt can be obtained by evaporating water from the saturated solution until crystals form.

制取可溶性盐通常需要过滤和结晶。通过蒸发饱和溶液使晶体析出，可获得纯的干燥盐样品。

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8. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon‑based compounds. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂. The first four straight‑chain alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane. They are relatively unreactive but undergo combustion and substitution with halogens under UV light.

有机化学关注碳基化合物。烷烃是通式为 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ 的饱和烃。直链烷烃的前四个成员为甲烷、乙烷、丙烷和丁烷。它们通常较不活泼，但可发生燃烧反应和在紫外光照下与卤素的取代反应。

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon‑carbon double bond (C=C). Their general formula is CₙH₂ₙ. Ethene and propene are common examples. Alkenes decolourise bromine water due to the addition reaction across the double bond.

烯烃是含有碳碳双键（C=C）的不饱和烃，通式为 CₙH₂ₙ。常见例子有乙烯和丙烯。烯烃能使溴水褪色，因为双键处发生加成反应。

Alcohols contain the –OH functional group. Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) can be produced by fermentation of glucose using yeast at around 30 °C, or by hydration of ethene with steam using a phosphoric acid catalyst.

醇类含有 –OH 官能团。乙醇（C₂H₅OH）可由葡萄糖在酵母作用下于约 30 °C 发酵制得，也可通过磷酸催化下乙烯与水蒸气的加成反应制得。

Carboxylic acids contain the –COOH functional group. Ethanoic acid is the main acid in vinegar. They react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters, which have fruity smells.

羧酸含有 –COOH 官能团。乙酸是食醋的主要酸。羧酸在酸催化下与醇反应生成具有果香味的酯。

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9. Chemical Analysis and Testing | 化学分析与检测

Cation tests can be carried out using flame tests or sodium hydroxide solution. Lithium gives a crimson flame, sodium a yellow flame, potassium a lilac flame, calcium an orange‑red flame, and copper a blue‑green flame. Transition metal ions produce coloured precipitates with NaOH, such as blue Cu(OH)₂.

阳离子检验可使用焰色反应或氢氧化钠溶液。锂产生深红色火焰，钠黄色，钾淡紫色，钙砖红色，铜蓝绿色。过渡金属离子与氢氧化钠反应生成有色沉淀，如蓝色 Cu(OH)₂。

Anion tests include: chloride (Cl⁻) gives a white precipitate with acidified silver nitrate, bromide gives a cream precipitate, iodide gives a yellow precipitate. Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) gives a white precipitate with barium chloride solution acidified with dilute HCl. Carbonate (CO₃²⁻) fizzes when dilute acid is added, producing carbon dioxide.

阴离子检验：氯离子（Cl⁻）与酸化硝酸银产生白色沉淀，溴离子产生奶油色沉淀，碘离子产生黄色沉淀。硫酸根（SO₄²⁻）与盐酸酸化的氯化钡溶液产生白色沉淀。碳酸根（CO₃²⁻）遇稀酸起泡，产生二氧化碳。

Instrumental methods, such as flame emission spectroscopy, can identify elements and determine their concentrations. They are rapid, sensitive, and can analyse very small samples without destruction.

仪器分析法，如火焰发射光谱法，可识别元素并测定其浓度。它们快速、灵敏，且可在不破坏样品的情况下分析极小量的样品。

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10. Atmosphere, Resources and Environmental Chemistry | 大气、资源与环境化学

The Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over billions of years. Early volcanic activity released water vapour, carbon dioxide, ammonia and methane. Photosynthesis by plants reduced CO₂ levels and increased O₂, leading to the atmosphere we have today: approximately 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen, with small amounts of argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour.

地球大气经历了数十亿年的演变。早期火山活动释放出水蒸气、二氧化碳、氨和甲烷。植物的光合作用降低了 CO₂ 水平并增加了 O₂，形成如今的大气：约 78% 氮气、21% 氧气，以及少量的氩、二氧化碳和水蒸气。

Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour absorb infrared radiation, trapping heat and causing global warming. Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have increased CO₂ levels significantly.

二氧化碳、甲烷和水蒸气等温室气体吸收红外辐射，困住热量导致全球变暖。人类活动，特别是化石燃料燃烧和森林砍伐，已显著提高了 CO₂ 水平。

Finite resources like crude oil, metal ores and limestone are being used up. Finite resources are also used to produce materials such as plastics, ceramics and composites. Recycling conserves resources and reduces the environmental impact of extraction.

原油、金属矿石和石灰石等有限资源正在被耗尽。有限资源也用于生产塑料、陶瓷和复合材料。回收利用可以节约资源并减少开采所带来的环境影响。

Water treatment makes water safe to drink by filtration and chlorination. Desalination by distillation or reverse osmosis can produce fresh water but requires a lot of energy. Life‑cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates the environmental impact of a product through its entire life.

水处理通过过滤和氯化使水可以安全饮用。通过蒸馏或反渗透进行海水淡化可产生淡水，但需要消耗大量能源。生命周期评估（LCA）评价产品在整个生命周期中对环境的影响。

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