📚 IGCSE Edexcel Biology: Final Revision Checklist | IGCSE 爱德思生物学期末复习清单
This revision checklist provides a structured summary of the key topics covered in the IGCSE Edexcel Biology course, helping you identify essential concepts and areas for focused study before the final exam. Use it to track your progress and ensure you can explain each point clearly using scientific terminology.
本复习清单对IGCSE爱德思生物学课程的核心主题进行了结构化总结，帮助你在期末考试前识别必会概念和重点学习领域。用它来跟踪复习进度，并确保你能使用科学术语清晰地解释每一条内容。
1. Characteristics and Classification of Living Organisms | 生物的特征与分类
All living organisms share seven life processes, remembered by the acronym MRS GREN: Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition. For Edexcel IGCSE, you must be able to describe each characteristic and give examples from different groups of organisms.
所有生物都共有七个生命过程，可用首字母缩略词 MRS GREN 记忆：运动、呼吸、感应、生长、生殖、排泄和营养。在爱德思IGCSE考试中，你需要能够描述每个特征，并给出不同生物类群的例子。
Organisms are classified into five kingdoms: Animals, Plants, Fungi, Prokaryotes (bacteria) and Protoctists. Key distinguishing features include cell structure, mode of nutrition and body organisation. You should also be able to explain the use of the binomial naming system (genus and species) and why classification helps scientists identify evolutionary relationships.
生物被分为五界：动物界、植物界、真菌界、原核生物界（细菌）和原生生物界。主要区分特征包括细胞结构、营养方式和身体组织水平。你还应该能够解释双名法（属名与种名）的使用，以及分类如何帮助科学家识别进化关系。
2. Cell Structure and Specialisation | 细胞结构与特化
The cell is the basic unit of life. You must know the structure and function of organelles common to both plant and animal cells – nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes – as well as structures unique to plant cells: cell wall (made of cellulose), a large permanent vacuole (containing cell sap) and chloroplasts. In addition, many bacterial cells possess a cell wall, plasmids and circular DNA, but lack a nucleus.
细胞是生命的基本单位。你必须掌握动植物细胞共有的细胞器（细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体）的结构与功能，以及植物细胞特有的结构：细胞壁（由纤维素组成）、大液泡（含细胞液）和叶绿体。此外，许多细菌细胞具有细胞壁、质粒和环状DNA，但没有细胞核。
Cell specialisation means that a cell’s structure is adapted to its function. Be able to relate the adaptations of various specialised cells – such as root hair cells (large surface area), red blood cells (biconcave shape, no nucleus) and sperm cells (acrosome, many mitochondria) – to their specific roles in the organism.
细胞特化意味着细胞的结构适应其功能。要能够将各种特化细胞（如根毛细胞表面积大、红细胞双凹圆盘状且无核、精子的顶体和大量线粒体）的结构与其在生物体内的特定作用联系起来。
3. Biological Molecules and Enzymes | 生物分子与酶
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are the main organic molecules. You should recall their chemical elements (C, H, O for carbohydrates and lipids; C, H, O, N and sometimes S for proteins), large molecules like starch and glycogen being polymers, and the roles of each group in living organisms. Food tests are essential practical skills: iodine solution for starch (blue-black), Benedict’s test for reducing sugars (brick-red precipitate), biuret test for proteins (purple), and the ethanol emulsion test for lipids (cloudy white).
碳水化合物、蛋白质和脂质是主要的有机分子。你要记住它们的组成元素（碳水化合物和脂质含C、H、O；蛋白质含C、H、O、N，有时含S），知道淀粉和糖原等大分子是多聚物，以及各类分子在生物体内的作用。食物测试是重要的实验技能：碘液检测淀粉（蓝黑色）、本尼迪克特试剂检测还原糖（砖红色沉淀）、双缩脲试剂检测蛋白质（紫色），以及乙醇乳浊液检测脂质（白色浑浊）。
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up metabolic reactions without being used up. Understand the lock-and-key model: the substrate fits into the enzyme’s active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex. You must be able to explain the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity using the concept of denaturation, as well as describe practical investigations involving catalase, amylase or similar enzymes.
酶是生物催化剂，能在不被消耗的情况下加速代谢反应。要理解锁钥模型：底物与酶的活性位点结合，形成酶-底物复合物。你必须能够用变性概念解释温度和pH对酶活性的影响，并能描述涉及过氧化氢酶、淀粉酶等的实验探究。
4. Movement Across Cell Membranes | 物质跨膜运输
Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion include temperature, concentration gradient and surface area.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输进出细胞。扩散是粒子沿着浓度梯度从较高浓度区域向较低浓度区域的净移动。影响扩散速率的因素包括温度、浓度梯度和表面积。
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion involving the movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution. Be able to predict and explain changes in animal and plant cells placed in solutions of different water potentials, using terms such as turgid, flaccid, plasmolysed, crenated and lysed. Active transport requires energy from respiration to move substances against a concentration gradient; an example is the uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells.
渗透是扩散的一种特殊情况，指水分子通过部分透性膜从稀溶液向较浓溶液移动。要能够预测并解释动植物细胞在不同水势溶液中的变化，使用术语如饱满、软缩、质壁分离、皱缩和胀破。主动运输需要呼吸作用提供的能量，逆浓度梯度运输物质；例如根毛细胞吸收矿质离子。
5. Plant Nutrition and Photosynthesis | 植物营养与光合作用
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce glucose using light energy. The word equation is: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll. The balanced chemical equation is:
光合作用是植物利用光能制造葡萄糖的过程。文字方程式为：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气，需在光能和叶绿素条件下进行。配平的化学方程式为：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
You need to explain how the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis, including features such as a large surface area, thin structure, waxy cuticle, stomata for gas exchange and palisade mesophyll cells packed with chloroplasts. Experiments that test for the requirement of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll, as well as those that show oxygen production, are frequently assessed.
你需要解释叶片如何适应光合作用，包括大表面积、薄而扁平、蜡质角质层、用于气体交换的气孔以及富含叶绿体的栅栏组织等特点。检验光、二氧化碳和叶绿素是必要条件以及演示氧气产生的实验，是常考内容。
The glucose produced is used in respiration or converted to starch for storage, cellulose for cell walls, amino acids (with nitrates) and lipids for growth. You should also understand the importance of mineral ions, especially nitrates for protein synthesis and magnesium for chlorophyll production, and be able to recognise deficiency symptoms.
生成的葡萄糖用于呼吸作用，或转化为淀粉储存、转化为纤维素构成细胞壁、合成氨基酸（需硝酸盐）和脂质以促进生长。你还应理解矿质离子的重要性，特别是硝酸盐用于合成蛋白质、镁用于生成叶绿素，并能识别缺乏症状。
6. Human Nutrition and Digestion | 人体营养与消化
A balanced diet includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water. You should link each nutrient to its main function and energy value (1 g of carbohydrate or protein provides roughly 17 kJ; 1 g of lipid provides about 39 kJ). The concept of energy requirement varies with age, activity levels and pregnancy.
均衡膳食包含碳水化合物、蛋白质、脂质、维生素、矿物质、膳食纤维和水。你要将每种营养物质与其主要功能和能量值联系起来（1克碳水化合物或蛋白质约提供17千焦；1克脂质约提供39千焦）。能量需求因年龄、活动水平和怀孕情况而异。
Digestion involves the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed. Mechanical digestion (chewing, stomach churning) and chemical digestion (enzymes) take place along the alimentary canal. Know the sites of production and actions of key enzymes: amylase (starch → maltose), protease (protein → amino acids) and lipase (lipids → fatty acids and glycerol). Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder, neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fats to increase the surface area for lipase action.
消化涉及将大分子不溶性物质分解为可被吸收的小分子可溶性物质。机械消化（咀嚼、胃的搅拌）和化学消化（酶的作用）在消化道内进行。要掌握关键酶的产生部位和作用：淀粉酶（淀粉 → 麦芽糖）、蛋白酶（蛋白质 → 氨基酸）和脂肪酶（脂质 → 脂肪酸和甘油）。胆汁由肝脏产生并储存在胆囊中，能中和胃酸并将脂肪乳化，以增大脂肪酶作用的表面积。
| Enzyme | Site of production | Substrate → Products | Optimum pH |
| Amylase | Salivary glands, pancreas | Starch → maltose | Neutral (~7) |
| Protease (pepsin) | Stomach | Protein → peptides | Acidic (~2) |
| Protease (trypsin) | Pancreas | Protein → peptides | Alkaline (~8) |
| Lipase | Pancreas | Lipids → fatty acids + glycerol | Alkaline (~8) |
Absorption of digested food occurs mainly in the small intestine. The ileum is adapted by having a very large surface area due to its length, thousands of villi and microvilli, a thin epithelium (one cell thick) and a dense capillary network for efficient uptake of nutrients into the blood.
消化后的食物主要在小肠被吸收。回肠通过其长度、数以千计的绒毛和微绒毛、仅一层细胞厚的薄上皮以及密集的毛细血管网获得极大的表面积，从而高效地将营养物质吸收进入血液。
7. Transport in Plants and Animals | 植物与动物体内的运输
Plants: Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves in the transpiration stream. The movement is explained by cohesion-tension theory: water evaporates from leaf mesophyll cells, creating a tension that pulls water up the continuous columns in xylem vessels. Phloem tissue translocates sucrose and amino acids (dissolved) from sources (e.g. leaves) to sinks (e.g. growing tips, storage organs). You should understand how root hair cells absorb water by osmosis and ions by active transport, and how environmental factors (light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind) affect transpiration rate.
植物：木质部组织将水分和矿质离子从根部向上运输到叶片，形成蒸腾流。其机理可用内聚力-张力理论解释：水分从叶肉细胞蒸发，产生张力，将木质部导管中连续的水柱向上拉。韧皮部组织将蔗糖和氨基酸（溶解状态）从源（如叶片）转运到库（如生长点、贮藏器官）。你要理解根毛细胞如何通过渗透吸收水分和通过主动运输吸收离子，以及环境因素（光照强度、温度、湿度、风）如何影响蒸腾速率。
Animals: The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood. Know the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries, and be able to relate the heart’s double circulation (pulmonary and systemic) to efficient oxygenation of blood. Label the four chambers of the heart and describe the function of valves in preventing backflow. Blood composition: red blood cells (transport oxygen, containing haemoglobin), white blood cells (defence), platelets (clotting) and plasma (transport of CO₂, digested food, urea, hormones, heat).
动物：循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成。要掌握动脉、静脉和毛细血管的结构与功能，并能将心脏的双循环（肺循环和体循环）与高效氧合血液联系起来。能够标出心脏的四个腔室，并描述瓣膜防止血液倒流的功能。血液成分：红细胞（运输氧气，含血红蛋白）、白细胞（防御）、血小板（凝血）和血浆（运输CO₂、消化后的食物、尿素、激素和热量）。
8. Respiration and Gas Exchange | 呼吸与气体交换
Respiration is the chemical release of energy from glucose. The balanced equation for aerobic respiration is:
呼吸是从葡萄糖中释放能量的化学过程。有氧呼吸的配平方程式为：
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)
Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid and a small amount of energy. In yeast, anaerobic respiration produces ethanol and carbon dioxide (fermentation). You should compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of products and energy yield, and explain the concept of oxygen debt during vigorous exercise.
动物体内的无氧呼吸产生乳酸和少量能量。酵母的无氧呼吸产生乙醇和二氧化碳（发酵）。你要比较有氧呼吸与无氧呼吸的产物和能量产能，并解释剧烈运动时的氧债概念。
Gas exchange in humans: The thorax contains the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Describe how the intercostal muscles and diaphragm bring about ventilation (inhalation and exhalation). Alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by having a large surface area, thin walls (one cell thick), a moist lining, and a dense network of capillaries. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion down concentration gradients.
人体的气体交换：胸腔内有气管、支气管、细支气管和肺泡。描述肋间肌和膈肌如何引起通气（吸气和呼气）。肺泡因具有大表面积、薄壁（单细胞厚）、湿润内衬和密集的毛细血管网而适合气体交换。二氧化碳和氧气沿浓度梯度通过扩散进行交换。
Gas exchange in plants occurs mainly through stomata in the leaf. Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata in response to light and water conditions. During the day, photosynthesis usually exceeds respiration, resulting in net oxygen release and carbon dioxide uptake; at night, only respiration occurs.
植物的气体交换主要通过叶片上的气孔进行。保卫细胞根据光照和水分条件控制气孔的开闭。白天，光合作用通常超过呼吸作用，净释放氧气并吸收二氧化碳；夜间则只进行呼吸作用。
9. Coordination, Response and Homeostasis | 协调、反应与稳态
Both the nervous and hormonal systems coordinate responses. The nervous system uses electrical impulses transmitted along neurones to bring about rapid, short-lived responses. Know the structure of a reflex arc: receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone (in the CNS) → motor neurone → effector. The synapse is a junction where chemical neurotransmitters diffuse across to continue the impulse.
神经系统和激素系统共同协调反应。神经系统利用沿神经元传导的电脉冲产生快速而短暂的反应。掌握反射弧的结构：感受器 → 感觉神经元 → 中间神经元（在中枢神经系统中） → 运动神经元 → 效应器。突触是神经元之间的接头，化学神经递质通过扩散穿过此处以传递冲动。
The endocrine system uses hormones, chemical messengers transported in blood, to achieve slower but longer-lasting responses. Key examples include adrenaline (fight or flight), insulin (lowers blood glucose) and glucagon (raises blood glucose). Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. You need to explain how insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose concentration in a negative feedback loop.
内分泌系统利用激素（经血液运输的化学信使）实现较慢但持久的反应。重点例子包括肾上腺素（“战斗或逃跑”反应）、胰岛素（降低血糖）和胰高血糖素（升高血糖）。稳态是维持内环境恒定的过程。你需要解释胰岛素和胰高血糖素如何通过负反馈回路调节血糖浓度。
The skin plays a role in temperature regulation. When body temperature rises, arterioles dilate (vasodilation) and sweat glands secrete more sweat; when it falls, arterioles constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering generates heat.
皮肤在体温调节中起作用。体温升高时，小动脉扩张（血管舒张），汗腺分泌更多汗液；体温降低时，小动脉收缩（血管收缩），战栗产热。
10. Reproduction and Inheritance | 生殖与遗传
Reproduction: Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring through mitosis; sexual reproduction involves gamete fusion and meiosis, creating genetic variation. In flowering plants, know the structure of insect- and wind-pollinated flowers, the process of pollination, fertilisation and seed development. Human reproductive systems (male and female) and the menstrual cycle should be revised, including the roles of oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH in controlling ovulation and the uterine lining.
生殖：无性生殖通过有丝分裂产生遗传上相同的后代；有性生殖涉及配子融合和减数分裂，产生遗传变异。在开花植物中，掌握虫媒花和风媒花的结构、传粉、受精和种子发育过程。还需复习人类生殖系统（男性和女性）以及月经周期，包括雌激素、孕激素、促卵泡激素（FSH）和促黄体生成素（LH）在控制排卵和子宫内膜增厚中的作用。
Inheritance: Key genetic terms: gene, allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype. Monohybrid crosses can be modelled using Punnett squares to predict the probability of offspring genotypes and phenotypes. Understand codominance (e.g. human blood groups, using alleles Iᴬ, Iᴮ and Iᵒ) and sex determination (XX female, XY male). The structure of DNA is a double helix, and protein synthesis involves transcription (DNA → mRNA) and translation (mRNA → protein).
遗传：关键遗传学术语：基因、等位基因、显性、隐性、纯合、杂合、表型、基因型。可用庞纳特方格模拟单基因杂交，预测子代基因型和表型的概率。理解共显性（如人类血型，使用等位基因Iᴬ、Iᴮ和Iᵒ）和性别决定（XX为女性，XY为男性）。DNA的结构是双螺旋，蛋白质合成包括转录（DNA → mRNA）和翻译（mRNA → 蛋白质）。
11. Ecosystems and Human Influences | 生态系统与人类影响
An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms interacting with their abiotic environment. You should be able to construct and interpret food chains, food webs and pyramids of number, biomass and energy. Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically about 10%, and most energy is lost through respiration, movement and undigested waste. The carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle show how elements are recycled; be able to describe the roles of photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, decomposition, nitrogen fixation, nitrification and denitrification.
生态系统由一个生物群落与其非生物环境相互作用而构成。你应该能够构建和解读食物链、食物网以及数量、生物量和能量金字塔。营养级之间的能量传递效率通常约为10%，大部分能量通过呼吸作用、运动以及未消化的废物而散失。碳循环和氮循环展示了元素如何被循环利用；要能描述光合作用、呼吸作用、燃烧、分解、固氮作用、硝化作用和反硝化作用所扮演的角色。
Human population growth leads to increased use of land and resources, resulting in habitat destruction, pollution and biodiversity loss. Understand the causes and consequences of deforestation, water pollution (eutrophication from fertilisers) and air pollution (sulphur dioxide causing acid rain, carbon dioxide enhancing the greenhouse effect). Conservation methods, including captive breeding, habitat protection and sustainable fishing quotas, help maintain biodiversity.
人口增长导致土地和资源使用增加，进而造成栖息地破坏、污染和生物多样性丧失。理解森林砍伐、水污染（化肥引发的富营养化）和空气污染（二氧化硫导致酸雨，二氧化碳加剧温室效应）的原因和后果。保护方法，包括圈养繁殖、栖息地保护和可持续捕捞配额，有助于维持生物多样性。
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