📚 AP Biology: High-Frequency Core Vocabulary from Past Exams | AP生物：真题高频核心词汇
Mastering terminology is half the battle in AP Biology. The following high-frequency terms, drawn from released exams and official course frameworks, are presented in paired English-Chinese definitions to support bilingual learners and deepen conceptual understanding.
掌握术语是 AP 生物成功的一半。以下高频词汇来自历年真题与官方课程框架，以中英双语定义成对呈现，帮助双语学习者深化概念理解。
1. Chemistry of Life | 生命的化学
Hydrogen bond: A weak intermolecular attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (e.g., O or N) and another electronegative atom. In water, hydrogen bonds give rise to cohesion, high specific heat, and the solvent properties essential for life.
氢键：一个与电负性原子（如 O 或 N）共价结合的氢原子与另一个电负性原子之间的弱分子间吸引力。在水中，氢键造成了内聚力、高比热容和生命必需的溶剂特性。
Cohesion: The attraction between molecules of the same substance, notably water molecules due to hydrogen bonding. Cohesion allows water transport in plants under tension and creates surface tension.
内聚力：同种物质分子之间的吸引力，尤其是水分子因氢键而产生的内聚力。内聚力使植物在张力下运输水分，并产生表面张力。
Monomer vs. Polymer: A monomer is a small repeating subunit (e.g., glucose, amino acid, nucleotide); a polymer is a large macromolecule formed by covalent bonding of many monomers (e.g., starch, protein, DNA). Dehydration synthesis links monomers; hydrolysis breaks polymers.
单体与多聚体：单体是小的重复亚基（如葡萄糖、氨基酸、核苷酸）；多聚体是由许多单体通过共价键连接而成的大分子（如淀粉、蛋白质、DNA）。脱水合成连接单体，水解断裂多聚体。
Phospholipid bilayer: A double layer of phospholipid molecules arranged with hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outward and hydrophobic fatty acid tails inward, forming the fundamental structure of cell membranes.
磷脂双分子层：磷脂分子排列成的双层结构，亲水的磷酸头朝外，疏水的脂肪酸尾朝内，构成细胞膜的基本骨架。
Enzyme: A protein (or sometimes RNA) that acts as a biological catalyst by lowering activation energy without being consumed. Enzyme specificity depends on the shape of the active site and is influenced by temperature, pH, and cofactors.
酶：一种蛋白质（有时是 RNA），作为生物催化剂通过降低活化能来加速反应，自身不被消耗。酶的特异性取决于活性位点的形状，并受温度、pH 和辅因子影响。
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate): The primary energy currency of the cell. Hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate bond releases energy to drive endergonic processes such as active transport and muscle contraction.
ATP（三磷酸腺苷）：细胞的主要能量货币。末端磷酸键的水解释放能量，驱动主动运输、肌肉收缩等需能过程。
2. Cell Structure and Function | 细胞结构与功能
Endosymbiotic theory: Proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from free-living prokaryotes engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell, supported by their own DNA, ribosomes, and double membranes.
内共生学说：提出线粒体和叶绿体起源于被原始真核细胞吞入的自由生活原核生物，证据包括它们拥有自身的 DNA、核糖体和双层膜。
Ribosome: A complex of rRNA and protein that carries out protein synthesis; found free in the cytoplasm or bound to the rough ER. Not membrane-bound, thus present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
核糖体：由 rRNA 和蛋白质组成的复合体，执行蛋白质合成；存在于细胞质中游离或结合在粗面内质网上。无膜包被，因此原核和真核细胞中均有。
Golgi apparatus: Stack of flattened membrane sacs that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles. Adds molecular tags for targeting.
高尔基体：扁平的膜囊堆叠结构，对蛋白质和脂质进行修饰、分拣和包装，以便分泌或送至其他细胞器。添加分子标签用于靶向运输。
Lysosome: Membrane-bound organelle containing hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules, worn-out organelles, and engulfed particles. Maintains acidic internal pH. Mainly in animal cells.
溶酶体：含有水解酶的膜包细胞器，消化大分子、衰老细胞器和吞噬的颗粒。内部维持酸性 pH。主要存在于动物细胞。
Chloroplast vs. Mitochondrion: Both are double-membraned organelles involved in energy transformation. Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis (light energy → chemical energy in glucose); mitochondria perform cellular respiration (glucose → ATP). Both contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
叶绿体与线粒体：两者均为双膜细胞器，参与能量转换。叶绿体进行光合作用（光能→葡萄糖中的化学能）；线粒体进行细胞呼吸（葡萄糖→ATP）。两者都有自己的 DNA 和核糖体。
Selective permeability: A property of the plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others due to the phospholipid bilayer and transport proteins. Small, nonpolar molecules pass freely; ions and large polar molecules require channels.
选择透过性：细胞膜的属性，允许某些物质比其他物质更容易通过，取决于磷脂双分子层和转运蛋白。小的非极性分子自由通过；离子和大极性分子需要通道蛋白。
3. Cellular Energetics | 细胞能量学
Glycolysis: The anaerobic breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate in the cytoplasm, producing a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. It occurs in all organisms and does not require oxygen.
糖酵解：在细胞质中将葡萄糖无氧分解为两分子丙酮酸，净生成 2 ATP 和 2 NADH。所有生物体中都发生，不需氧气。
Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle): A series of reactions in the mitochondrial matrix that oxidizes acetyl-CoA to CO₂, generating NADH, FADH₂, and 1 ATP (GTP) per turn. It completes the oxidation of glucose derivatives.
Krebs 循环（柠檬酸循环）：在线粒体基质中进行的一系列反应，将乙酰辅酶A氧化成 CO₂，每循环产生 NADH、FADH₂ 和 1 ATP (GTP)。完成葡萄糖衍生物的氧化。
Oxidative phosphorylation: The process in which ATP is synthesized using energy released by the transfer of electrons through the electron transport chain to oxygen, coupled with chemiosmosis via ATP synthase. Accounts for ~90% of ATP production.
氧化磷酸化：利用电子经电子传递链传递给氧时释放的能量，通过 ATP 合酶的化学渗透偶联合成 ATP 的过程。约占 ATP 总产量的 90%。
Chemiosmosis: The movement of ions (H⁺) down their electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase, driving ATP synthesis. The proton gradient is established by the electron transport chain across the inner mitochondrial membrane (or thylakoid membrane).
化学渗透：离子（H⁺）沿电化学梯度通过 ATP 合酶的运动，驱动 ATP 合成。质子梯度由电子传递链在内线粒体膜（或类囊体膜）两侧建立。
Fermentation: An anaerobic pathway regenerating NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue. In animals, lactic acid fermentation produces lactate; in yeast, alcohol fermentation produces ethanol and CO₂. No additional ATP is made beyond glycolysis.
发酵：无氧途径，再生 NAD⁺ 以维持糖酵解进行。动物中乳酸发酵产生乳酸；酵母中酒精发酵产生乙醇和 CO₂。除糖酵解外不额外产生 ATP。
Photosystem: A protein-pigment complex (including chlorophyll a) in the thylakoid membrane that captures light energy. Photosystem II absorbs light to split water, while Photosystem I passes energized electrons to NADP⁺ reductase to form NADPH.
光系统：类囊体膜上由蛋白质和色素（含叶绿素 a）组成的复合体，捕获光能。光系统 II 吸收光能裂解水，光系统 I 将高能电子传递给 NADP⁺ 还原酶生成 NADPH。
4. Cell Communication and Cell Cycle | 细胞通讯与细胞周期
Signal transduction pathway: A series of molecular events triggered by a signal binding to a receptor, often involving a cascade of protein phosphorylations and second messengers, leading to a cellular response. Example: epinephrine → cAMP → response.
信号转导通路：信号分子与受体结合引发的一系列分子事件，常涉及蛋白质磷酸化级联和第二信使，最终产生细胞应答。例如：肾上腺素 → cAMP → 反应。
G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR): A membrane receptor that, upon ligand binding, activates a G protein, which then activates an effector enzyme to produce second messengers like cAMP. Largest receptor family.
G 蛋白偶联受体 (GPCR)：一种膜受体，配体结合后激活 G 蛋白，进而激活效应酶产生 cAMP 等第二信使。是最大的受体家族。
Cyclin and CDK: Cyclins are regulatory proteins whose levels fluctuate during the cell cycle; they activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). The cyclin-CDK complex phosphorylates target proteins to drive progression past checkpoints, especially G₁/S and G₂/M.
细胞周期蛋白与 CDK：细胞周期蛋白是水平随细胞周期波动的调节蛋白，激活周期蛋白依赖性激酶 (CDK)。cyclin-CDK 复合物磷酸化靶蛋白，推动细胞通过检查点，特别是 G₁/S 和 G₂/M 转换。
Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells for growth and repair; meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid gametes through two divisions, with crossing over in prophase I increasing genetic diversity.
有丝分裂与减数分裂：有丝分裂产生两个遗传相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长和修复；减数分裂通过两次分裂产生四个遗传多样的单倍体配子，前期 I 的交叉互换增加遗传多样性。
Apoptosis: Programmed cell death, a regulated process triggered by internal or external signals, leading to cell shrinkage, DNA fragmentation, and phagocytosis without inflammation. Critical for development and homeostasis.
细胞凋亡：程序性细胞死亡，由内外信号触发的受控过程，导致细胞皱缩、DNA 断裂并被吞噬，不引发炎症。对发育和稳态至关重要。
Checkpoint: Control points in the cell cycle (G₁, G₂, M) that ensure conditions are favorable and DNA is intact before proceeding. p53 protein can halt the cycle if DNA damage is detected.
检查点：细胞周期中的控制点（G₁、G₂、M），确保条件合适且 DNA 完整后才继续。若检测到 DNA 损伤，p53 蛋白可暂停周期。
5. Heredity (Genetics) | 遗传学
Allele: An alternative version of a gene at a given locus. Alleles may be dominant or recessive. Homozygous: two identical alleles; heterozygous: two different alleles.
等位基因：基因在特定位点的不同版本。等位基因有显性和隐性之分。纯合子：两个相同的等位基因；杂合子：两个不同的等位基因。
Law of Segregation: Mendel’s principle that the two alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation so that each gamete carries only one allele. Random fertilization restores the pair.
分离定律：孟德尔定律，指控制某一性状的等位基因在配子形成时分离，使每个配子只含一个等位基因。随机受精恢复配对。
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during gamete formation, provided they are on different chromosomes. This produces genetic variation.
自由组合定律：不同基因的等位基因在配子形成时独立分配，前提是它们位于不同染色体上。这产生遗传变异。
Linked genes: Genes located close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together because they do not assort independently. Crossing over can separate them; recombination frequency indicates relative distance.
连锁基因：位于同一染色体上靠近的基因倾向于一起遗传，因为它们不独立分配。交叉互换可将其分开；重组频率指示相对距离。
Polygenic inheritance: A single trait controlled by multiple genes, each having a small additive effect. Results in continuous phenotypic variation (e.g., human height, skin color).
多基因遗传：由多个基因控制的单一性状，每个基因贡献小的加性效应。导致连续的表型变异（如人身高、肤色）。
Pedigree analysis: A diagram showing the inheritance pattern of a trait across generations. Used to determine whether a trait is autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or sex-linked.
系谱分析：显示一种性状在家族世代中遗传模式的图解。用于判断性状是常染色体显性、常染色体隐性还是伴性遗传。
6. Gene Expression and Regulation | 基因表达与调控
Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template by RNA polymerase. In eukaryotes occurs in the nucleus. The promoter region (e.g., TATA box) signals where transcription begins.
转录：RNA 聚合酶以 DNA 为模板合成 mRNA 的过程。真核生物中发生在细胞核。启动子区（如 TATA 框）指示转录起始位点。
Translation: Decoding of mRNA at a ribosome to build a polypeptide chain. tRNA molecules carry amino acids matching the mRNA codons; the process proceeds through initiation, elongation, and termination.
翻译：核糖体解码 mRNA 以合成多肽链的过程。tRNA 携带与 mRNA 密码子匹配的氨基酸；过程分为起始、延伸和终止。
Operon: A cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter, found in prokaryotes. The lac operon is inducible by lactose; the trp operon is repressible by tryptophan. Includes operator, promoter, and structural genes.
操纵子：原核生物中受单一启动子控制的一组基因。乳糖操纵子受乳糖诱导；色氨酸操纵子受色氨酸阻遏。包含操纵基因、启动子和结构基因。
Epigenetics: Heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence itself, such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation. These can silence or activate genes.
表观遗传学：不涉及 DNA 序列改变的基因表达可遗传变化，如 DNA 甲基化和组蛋白乙酰化。这些修饰可以沉默或激活基因。
Alternative splicing: The process by which different exons of a pre-mRNA are joined to produce multiple distinct mRNA variants from a single gene, thereby increasing protein diversity.
可变剪接：前体 mRNA 的不同外显子以不同方式连接，从单一基因产生多种不同 mRNA 变体的过程，从而增加蛋白质多样性。
Transcription factor: A protein that binds to specific DNA sequences to control the rate of transcription. Activators enhance transcription; repressors inhibit it. Often modulated by signals.
转录因子：结合特定 DNA 序列以控制转录速率的蛋白质。激活因子增强转录；阻遏因子抑制转录。常受信号调节。
7. Natural Selection and Evolution | 自然选择与进化
Natural selection: The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to heritable variation in traits. Over generations, advantageous alleles increase in frequency, leading to adaptation.
自然选择：由于可遗传的性状变异导致的个体差异生存和繁殖。世代累积后，有利等位基因频率增加，导致适应。
Genetic drift: Random changes in allele frequencies in a population, especially in small populations. Can lead to loss of genetic diversity or fixation of alleles. Bottleneck and founder effects are examples.
遗传漂变：群体中等位基因频率的随机变化，特别是在小群体中。可导致遗传多样性丧失或等位基因固定。瓶颈效应和奠基者效应是实例。
Gene flow: The movement of alleles into or out of a population through migration of fertile individuals or gametes. Tends to reduce genetic differences between populations.
基因流：等位基因通过可育个体或配子迁移进入或离开群体的运动。倾向于减少群体间遗传差异。
Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. Allopatric speciation occurs when a geographical barrier isolates populations; sympatric speciation occurs without geographical isolation, often via polyploidy or habitat differentiation.
物种形成：进化过程中新物种的形成。异域物种形成发生于地理屏障隔离群体时；同域物种形成无需地理隔离，常通过多倍体化或栖息地分化发生。
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: A principle stating that allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences: p² + 2pq + q² = 1. Conditions: no mutation, random mating, no gene flow, large population, no selection.
Hardy-Weinberg 平衡：原理指出，在没有进化影响时，等位基因和基因型频率世代保持不变：p² + 2pq + q² = 1。条件：无突变、随机交配、无基因流、大群体、无选择。
Phylogenetic tree: A branching diagram showing inferred evolutionary relationships based on shared characteristics or genetic data. Nodes represent common ancestors; branch length may indicate time or amount of change.
系统发育树：一种分支图，基于共有性状或遗传数据展示推断的进化关系。节点代表共同祖先；分支长度可表示时间或变化量。
8. Ecology | 生态学
Carrying capacity (K): The maximum stable population size that an environment can sustain over time, limited by resources such as food, water, and space. Logistic growth levels off at K.
环境容纳量 (K)：环境可长期维持的最大稳定种群大小，受食物、水和空间等资源限制。逻辑斯谛增长在 K 处趋于平缓。
Trophic level: A feeding position in a food chain (producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, etc.). Energy transfer between levels is typically about 10%, explaining the pyramidal structure of biomass and numbers.
营养级：食物链中的取食位置（生产者、初级消费者、次级消费者等）。营养级间的能量传递效率通常约为 10%，解释了生物量和数量金字塔结构。
Biogeochemical cycle: The circulation of elements (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water) through biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. Carbon cycle involves photosynthesis and respiration; nitrogen cycle involves nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification.
生物地球化学循环：元素（碳、氮、磷、水）在生态系统生物和非生物组分间的循环。碳循环涉及光合作用和呼吸作用；氮循环涉及固氮、硝化、反硝化。
Keystone species: A species whose impact on its ecosystem is disproportionately large relative to its abundance. Its removal can trigger a trophic cascade and collapse community structure (e.g., sea otter controlling sea urchin population).
关键种：对生态系统的影响相对于其丰度不成比例地大的物种。其移除可引发营养级联并破坏群落结构（如海獭控制海胆数量）。
Ecological succession: The gradual, orderly process of change in species composition following a disturbance. Primary succession begins on bare rock (lichens, mosses); secondary succession occurs after a disturbance where soil remains (faster). A climax community eventually stabilizes.
生态演替：干扰后物种组成逐渐、有序变化的过程。原生演替始于裸岩（地衣、苔藓）；次生演替发生在土壤保留的干扰后（更快）。最终顶级群落趋于稳定。
Symbiosis: Close and long-term biological interactions between different species. Types include mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0), and parasitism (+/-). Examples: mycorrhizae (fungus and root mutualism), barnacles on whale (commensalism).
共生：不同物种间紧密且长期的生物相互作用。类型包括互利共生（+/+）、偏利共生（+/0）和寄生（+/-）。例：菌根（真菌与根互利共生）、藤壶附于鲸体（偏利共生）。
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