📚 Year 7 AQA Sociology: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | 七年级 AQA 社会学：公式定理速查手册
This handbook provides a concise collection of key theorems, sociological formulas, and essential concepts for Year 7 AQA Sociology students. It is designed as a quick revision tool to help you understand and apply the core ideas of society, research methods, and social structures.
本手册为七年级 AQA 社会学的学生提供了关键定理、社会学公式和基本概念的简明汇编。它旨在作为一个快速复习工具，帮助你理解和应用社会、研究方法和社会结构的核心思想。
1. What is Sociology? | 什么是社会学？
Sociology is the systematic study of society, social institutions, and human social behaviour. It explores how individuals are shaped by groups, culture, and social structures.
社会学是对社会、社会制度和人类社会行为的系统性研究。它探讨个人如何被群体、文化和社会结构所塑造。
A key theorem: Society is external to the individual, yet it shapes every aspect of our lives – from language to moral values. Sociologists call this “society as a social fact.”
一个关键定理：社会独立于个人之外，但它塑造了我们生活的每一个方面——从语言到道德价值观。社会学家称之为“作为社会事实的社会”。
2. Key Sociological Theories | 主要社会学理论
Functionalism views society as a stable system of interconnected parts, each working together to maintain social order. The ‘organic analogy’ theorem compares society to a living body, where institutions like the family and education function like organs.
功能主义视社会为一个由相互关联部分组成的稳定系统，每个部分共同协作以维持社会秩序。“有机类比”定理将社会比作一个生命体，家庭和教育等制度就像器官一样发挥功能。
Conflict theory (Marxism) states that society is characterised by conflict between the ruling class and the working class over resources and power. The theorem of class struggle drives social change.
冲突理论（马克思主义）指出，社会以统治阶级和工人阶级之间围绕资源和权力的冲突为特征。阶级斗争定理推动社会变革。
Symbolic interactionism focuses on micro-level interactions and how people use symbols to create shared meanings. The theorem of the ‘looking-glass self’ (Cooley) explains that our self-image develops through how we think others see us.
符号互动论关注微观层面的互动，以及人们如何使用符号来创造共享的意义。“镜中我”定理（库利）解释说，我们的自我形象是通过我们认为他人如何看待我们而发展起来的。
3. Theorems of Socialisation | 社会化定理
Primary socialisation occurs in the family, where children learn basic norms, values, and language. Theorem: The family is the first and most influential agent of socialisation.
初级社会化发生在家庭中，儿童在此学习基本规范、价值观和语言。定理：家庭是社会化的第一个且最具影响力的载体。
Secondary socialisation takes place in schools, peer groups, and the media, reinforcing wider societal expectations. The hidden curriculum theorem: schools teach norms like punctuality and obedience beyond academic subjects.
次级社会化在学校、同伴群体和媒体中进行，强化更广泛的社会期望。隐性课程定理：学校除了学术科目，还教授准时和服从等规范。
Resocialisation theorem: Individuals may undergo resocialisation in total institutions such as the military or prisons, where old norms are replaced.
再社会化定理：个人可能在军队或监狱等全面机构中经历再社会化，旧规范被新规范取代。
4. Research Methods and Formulas | 研究方法与公式
Sociologists collect quantitative data (numerical) and qualitative data (non-numerical). Several basic formulas are essential for analysing survey results and official statistics.
社会学家收集定量数据（数值型）和定性数据（非数值型）。几个基本公式对于分析调查结果和官方统计数据至关重要。
Mean = (Σ values) ÷ n
平均值公式：总和（Σ）除以数值个数（n）。平均值是集中趋势的度量，常用于比较不同群体的收入或受教育年限。
Percentage Change = [(New Value – Old Value) / Old Value] × 100
百分比变化 = [（新值 – 旧值）/ 旧值] × 100。用于衡量犯罪率或离婚率随时间的变化。
Proportion (%) = (Part / Whole) × 100
比例（%）= （部分 / 整体）× 100。例如，计算样本中某一族群所占百分比。
5. Sampling Methods: Key Formulas and Theorems | 抽样方法：关键公式与定理
In social research, a sample is a subset of a population. The theorem of representativeness: a sample must reflect the characteristics of the wider population for findings to be generalisable.
在社会研究中，样本是总体的一个子集。代表性定理：样本必须反映更广泛总体的特征，研究结果才能推广。
Sampling Fraction = Sample Size / Population Size
抽样分数 = 样本量 / 总体规模。该公式表明样本占总体的比例，数值越大通常代表性越强。
Random sampling theorem: every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias.
随机抽样定理：总体中的每个个体都有相同的被选中机会，从而减少偏差。
Stratified sampling theorem: the population is divided into strata (e.g., by gender or age), and a proportional sample is drawn from each, ensuring all groups are represented.
分层抽样定理：将总体分成不同的层（如按性别或年龄），从每一层中按比例抽取样本，确保所有群体都被代表。
6. The Family: Key Theorems | 家庭：关键定理
Nuclear family theorem (Murdock): The nuclear family performs four essential functions – sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational – and is a universal social institution.
核心家庭定理（默多克）：核心家庭履行四种基本功能——性、生殖、经济和教育——并且是一个普遍存在的社会制度。
Marxist theorem on the family: The family serves capitalism by reproducing labour power, socialising children into accepting authority, and passing on private property, thus maintaining class inequality.
马克思主义家庭定理：家庭通过再生产劳动力、使儿童社会化以接受权威，以及传承私有财产，从而为资本主义服务，维持了阶级不平等。
Feminist theorem: The family often reinforces patriarchal norms, with a gendered division of labour where women perform more unpaid domestic work and emotional labour.
女性主义定理：家庭通常强化父权规范，存在性别劳动分工，女性承担更多无偿家务劳动和情感劳动。
7. Education: Key Theorems | 教育：关键定理
Functionalist theorem (Durkheim): Education transmits shared norms and values, creating social solidarity. It also sifts and selects individuals for future occupational roles – the ‘role allocation’ theorem.
功能主义定理（杜尔凯姆）：教育传递共享规范和价值观，创造社会团结。它还筛选和选拔个人担任未来的职业角色——“角色分配”定理。
Hidden curriculum theorem (Bowles & Gintis): Schools implicitly teach norms like obedience, punctuality, and acceptance of hierarchy, which mirror the workplace in capitalist societies.
隐性课程定理（鲍尔斯与金蒂斯）：学校潜移默化地教授服从、准时和接受等级制度等规范，这些规范反映了资本主义社会的工作场所。
Labelling in education theorem: Teachers may label students based on class or ethnicity, which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy and affect educational achievement.
教育标签定理：教师可能根据阶级或种族给学生贴标签，这可能产生自我实现预言并影响教育成就。
8. Crime and Deviance: Key Theorems | 犯罪与偏差行为：关键定理
Labelling theory theorem (Becker): Deviance is not a quality of the act a person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’. The label becomes a master status.
标签理论定理（贝克尔）：偏差行为并非行为本身的特质，而是他人将规则和制裁应用于“违规者”的结果。标签成为主要身份。
Anomie theorem (Merton): Crime and deviance occur when there is a strain between society’s culturally approved goals (e.g., material success) and the legitimate means to achieve them. This leads to adaptations like innovation or retreatism.
失范定理（默顿）：当社会文化认可的目标（如物质成功）与实现目标的合法手段之间存在张力时，犯罪与偏差行为就会发生。这导致了革新或退却等适应模式。
Social control theorem: Informal social control (family, peers) and formal social control (police, courts) work together to ensure conformity to norms.
社会控制定理：非正式社会控制（家庭、同伴）和正式社会控制（警察、法院）共同作用，确保人们遵守规范。
9. Social Stratification: Key Concepts and Theorems | 社会分层：关键概念与定理
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on wealth, power, and status. The theorem of structured inequality: these divisions are not random but are maintained by social mechanisms.
社会分层指根据财富、权力和地位对个人进行的等级排列。结构化不平等定理：这些划分不是随机的，而是由社会机制维持的。
Marx’s class theorem: Class is fundamentally determined by ownership of the means of production, creating two main classes – bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers).
马克思的阶级定理：阶级从根本上由生产资料所有权决定，形成了两个主要阶级——资产阶级（所有者）和无产阶级（工人）。
Weber’s stratification theorem: Besides class, status (prestige) and power (political influence) are independent dimensions of inequality. A person can rank high in one dimension but low in another.
韦伯的分层定理：除阶级外，地位（声望）和权力（政治影响力）是不平等的独立维度。一个人可能在一个维度上排名高而在另一个维度上排名低。
10. Demographic Formulas | 人口统计公式
Demography studies population patterns. Sociologists use several standard formulas to measure fertility, mortality, and population structure.
人口学研究生育模式。社会学家使用几种标准公式来衡量生育率、死亡率和人口结构。
Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = (Number of live births in a year / Mid-year population) × 1000
粗出生率（CBR） = （一年内活产婴儿数 / 年中人口数）× 1000。它反映每千人中新生儿出生数量。
Crude Death Rate (CDR) = (Number of deaths in a year / Mid-year population) × 1000
粗死亡率（CDR） = （一年内死亡人数 / 年中人口数）× 1000。用于快速比较不同社会的健康状况。
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) = (Number of deaths of infants under 1 year / Number of live births) × 1000
婴儿死亡率（IMR） = （一岁以下婴儿死亡人数 / 活产婴儿数）× 1000。这是衡量社会福祉的敏感指标。
Dependency Ratio = [(Population under 15 + Population over 64) / Working-age population (15-64)] × 100
抚养比 = [（15岁以下人口 + 64岁以上人口）/ 劳动年龄人口（15-64）] × 100。表示非劳动人口对劳动人口的经济负担。
11. Data Presentation: Graphs and Charts | 数据呈现：图表
Visual representation of data is crucial in sociological research. The theorem of graphic clarity: the simplest chart that conveys the key pattern is usually the best choice.
数据的视觉呈现在社会学研究中至关重要。图形清晰定理：传达关键模式的最简单图表通常是最佳选择。
Bar charts are used to compare categories. Pie charts show proportions of a whole. A line graph can display a trend over time.
条形图用于比较类别。饼图显示整体的各部分比例。折线图可显示随时间变化的趋势。
To construct a pie chart manually, multiply each proportion by 3.6 to find the angle: Angle = (Proportion × 3.6) degrees, since a full circle is 360°.
要手动绘制饼图，将每个比例乘以3.6以求得角度：角度 = （比例 × 3.6）度，因为一个整圆是360°。
12. Key Sociologists and Their “Theorems” | 关键社会学家及其“定理”
Emile Durkheim’s theorem of social facts: Social facts, such as laws and moral codes, exist externally to any individual and exert coercive power. His study of suicide demonstrated how social integration affects rates.
埃米尔·杜尔凯姆的社会事实定理：社会事实，如法律和道德准则，外在于任何个人而存在，并具有强制力。他对自杀的研究证明了社会整合如何影响自杀率。
Karl Marx’s historical materialism theorem: The mode of production (economic base) determines the superstructure – including politics, law, and culture. Class conflict is the engine of history.
卡尔·马克思的历史唯物主义定理：生产方式（经济基础）决定上层建筑——包括政治、法律和文化。阶级斗争是历史的动力。
Max Weber’s theorem of social action: To understand society, we must interpret the meanings individuals attach to their actions (verstehen). He identified four types of social action: instrumental-rational, value-rational, affective, and traditional.
马克斯·韦伯的社会行动定理：要理解社会，我们必须解释个人赋予其行为的意义（理解）。他确定了四种社会行动类型：工具理性、价值理性、情感性和传统性。
Becker’s labelling theorem: Social groups create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders.
贝克尔的标签定理：社会群体通过制定规则来创造偏差，违反这些规则便构成偏差，并将这些规则应用于特定人群，给他们贴上局外人的标签。
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