📚 Year 10 WJEC Psychology: Key Concepts Summary | Year 10 WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理
WJEC GCSE Psychology introduces you to how the human mind works and how psychologists investigate behaviour. In Year 10, you will explore core topics including research methods, memory, attachment, social influence, perception, and mental health. This article consolidates the essential knowledge you need, pairing key concepts with clear explanations to support your revision.
WJEC GCSE 心理学课程带你了解人类心智的运作方式以及心理学家如何研究行为。在 Year 10 阶段，你将探索包括研究方法、记忆、依恋、社会影响、感知和心理健康在内的核心主题。本文梳理了必学的核心知识点，将关键概念与清晰的解释配对呈现，帮助你高效复习。
1. Research Methods Overview | 研究方法概述
Psychology is an evidence-based discipline, so understanding how research is conducted is fundamental. Research methods can be divided into experimental and non-experimental approaches, each with distinct designs, strengths, and limitations. The goal is to investigate relationships between variables while maintaining validity, reliability, and ethical standards.
心理学是一门基于证据的学科，因此理解如何开展研究是基础。研究方法可分为实验法和非实验法，每种方法都有独特的设计、优势和局限。其目标是探究变量之间的关系，同时保持研究效度、信度并遵循伦理标准。
Key terms include the independent variable (IV) – the factor manipulated by the researcher – and the dependent variable (DV) – the factor measured. Extraneous variables must be controlled to prevent them from becoming confounding variables that distort results. Operationalisation means clearly defining how variables are measured or changed.
关键术语包括自变量（IV）—— 研究者操纵的因素，以及因变量（DV）—— 测量的结果。必须控制额外变量，以防它们成为混淆变量并扭曲结果。操作化是指明确定义变量如何被测量或改变。
2. The Experimental Method | 实验法
The experimental method is the only research approach that can establish cause-and-effect relationships. A true experiment involves random allocation of participants to conditions and strict control over the IV. There are three main experimental designs: independent groups, repeated measures, and matched pairs. Each design has strengths in controlling order effects or participant variables but also weaknesses, such as needing more participants or time.
实验法是唯一能确立因果关系的研究途径。一个真正的实验需要将参与者随机分配到不同条件中，并对自变量进行严格控制。有三种主要实验设计：独立组设计、重复测量设计和配对组设计。每种设计在控制顺序效应或参与者变量方面各有利弊，例如需要更多参与者或时间。
Laboratory experiments offer high internal validity because of tight control, but may lack ecological validity. Field experiments are conducted in natural settings, increasing mundane realism but reducing control over extraneous variables. Quasi-experiments compare pre-existing groups (e.g., gender) and cannot fully establish causation due to lack of random allocation.
实验室实验由于严格控制而具有高内部效度，但可能缺乏生态效度。现场实验在自然环境中进行，增加了生活化真实感，但对额外变量的控制减弱。准实验比较既存群组（如性别），由于缺乏随机分配，不能完全确立因果关系。
3. Non-experimental Methods | 非实验方法
Not all psychological questions can be studied with experiments. Non-experimental methods include observations, self-reports (questionnaires and interviews), and case studies. Observational techniques can be structured or unstructured, and participants may be aware or unaware (overt vs. covert). Researchers use behavioural categories and time or event sampling to record data.
并非所有的心理学问题都可以用实验来研究。非实验方法包括观察法、自我报告法（问卷和访谈）以及个案研究。观察技术可以是结构化或非结构化的，参与者可能知道或不知道被观察（公开或隐蔽）。研究者使用行为类别以及时间或事件取样来记录数据。
Self-reports collect information about feelings, beliefs, and attitudes. Questionnaires can gather large amounts of data quickly but suffer from social desirability bias. Interviews, whether structured or unstructured, allow for richer responses but are harder to analyse. Case studies provide detailed, in-depth insight into rare phenomena but lack generalisability.
自我报告法收集关于情感、信念和态度的信息。问卷可以快速收集大量数据，但会受到社会赞许性偏差的影响。访谈，无论是结构化还是非结构化，都能获得更丰富的回答，但分析较难。个案研究提供了对罕见现象的详细深入洞察，但缺乏可推广性。
4. Models of Memory | 记忆模型
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes memory as a flow through three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information enters from the environment, and if paid attention to, it moves into STM. Through elaborative rehearsal, it can be transferred into LTM for permanent storage.
记忆的多储存模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968）将记忆描述为流经三个独立储存库的过程：感觉登记器、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息从环境进入，如果受到注意，就会进入短时记忆。通过精细复述，它可以转入长时记忆进行永久储存。
The model is supported by research showing STM capacity is limited to about 7±2 chunks (Miller, 1956) and duration is around 18–30 seconds without rehearsal. However, the model oversimplifies memory as passive stores and doesn’t explain why some unrehearsed information still reaches LTM.
该模型得到了研究的支持，表明短时记忆的容量限于约 7±2 个组块（Miller, 1956），在没有复述的情况下持续时间约为 18–30 秒。然而，该模型过于简化地将记忆视为被动储存，无法解释为什么有些未经复述的信息仍能到达长时记忆。
| Store | Capacity | Duration | Encoding |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory register | Very large | Less than 0.5 seconds | Modality-specific |
| STM | 7±2 chunks | 18–30 sec | Mainly acoustic |
| LTM | Unlimited | Potentially a lifetime | Mainly semantic |
5. Forgetting and Eyewitness Testimony | 遗忘与目击证词
Forgetting can occur due to decay (memory traces fading over time), displacement (new information pushing old out of STM), or interference. Proactive interference happens when old learning disrupts new recall; retroactive interference is when new learning blocks old memories. A lack of retrieval cues can also cause retrieval failure, as described in the encoding specificity principle.
遗忘可能由消退（记忆痕迹随时间衰减）、替代（新信息把旧信息推出短时记忆）或干扰引起。前摄干扰指旧知识干扰新记忆的提取；倒摄干扰指新知识阻碍旧记忆。缺乏提取线索也会导致提取失败，正如编码特定性原则所描述的那样。
Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable due to leading questions, post-event discussion, and anxiety. Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that changing a verb in a question (e.g., ‘smashed’ vs ‘hit’) altered speed estimates and memory for broken glass. Misleading information can distort memories, creating false recollections.
目击证词可能不可靠，原因包括引导性问题、事件后讨论和焦虑。Loftus 和 Palmer (1974) 表明，改变问题中的动词（如 ‘碰撞’ 和 ‘击中’）会改变速度估计以及对破碎玻璃的记忆。误导性信息会扭曲记忆，产生虚假回忆。
6. Attachment Behaviours and Types | 依恋行为与类型
Attachment is a strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver that has survival value. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1978) classified attachment into three main styles: secure (distress on separation, joy on reunion, caregiver used as safe base), insecure-avoidant (low distress, ignores caregiver on return), and insecure-resistant (high distress, ambivalence on reunion).
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间具有生存价值的强烈情感纽带。Ainsworth 的陌生情境实验 (1978) 将依恋分为三种主要风格：安全型（分离时痛苦，重聚时高兴，将照料者作为安全基地）、不安全-回避型（痛苦程度低，重聚时忽视照料者）以及不安全-矛盾型（高度痛苦，重聚时表现出矛盾情绪）。
Bowlby’s monotropic theory emphasises that infants form one primary attachment that serves as an internal working model for future relationships. The critical period for attachment formation is the first two years. Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than food in forming attachment.
Bowlby 的单一依恋理论强调，婴儿会形成一个主要依恋，作为未来关系的内在运作模型。依恋形成的关键期是出生后的头两年。Harlow 对恒河猴的研究表明，在形成依恋方面，接触舒适比食物更重要。
7. Cultural Variations in Attachment | 依恋的文化差异
Cross-cultural research, such as van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s (1988) meta-analysis, found that secure attachment is the most common type across all cultures. However, significant variations exist: collectivist cultures like Japan show higher rates of insecure-resistant attachment, while individualist cultures like Germany tend to show more insecure-avoidant patterns.
跨文化研究，如 van IJzendoorn 和 Kroonenberg (1988) 的元分析发现，在所有文化中安全型依恋都是最常见的类型。然而，也存在显著差异：像日本这样的集体主义文化中不安全-矛盾型依恋比例更高，而像德国这样的个人主义文化往往表现出更多的不安全-回避型模式。
These differences may reflect child-rearing practices. Close physical proximity and high responsiveness in Japanese parenting may foster dependent/ambivalent behaviour, whereas German emphasis on early independence might lead to avoidant behaviour. Intracultural variation was actually greater than intercultural variation, suggesting that subcultural factors matter too.
这些差异可能反映了育儿实践。日本抚养方式中亲密的肢体接近和高回应性可能助长依赖/矛盾行为，而德国对早期独立的强调可能导致回避行为。文化内部的差异实际上大于文化间的差异，这表明亚文化因素也很重要。
8. Social Influence: Conformity | 社会影响：从众
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch (1951) demonstrated conformity to an obviously incorrect majority: participants agreed with confederates’ wrong line judgments 37% of the time. This highlights normative social influence – conforming to be liked or accepted – and informational social influence – conforming because you believe others are correct.
从众是由于真实或想象中的群体压力而导致的行为或信念改变。Asch (1951) 证明了人们会屈从于明显错误的多数意见：参与者们在 37% 的试验中同意假被试的错误线条判断。这凸显了规范社会影响——为了被喜欢或接纳而遵从——以及信息社会影响——因为相信他人是正确的而遵从。
Conformity rates increase when the task is difficult (more informational influence), when participants must respond publicly, and when the majority is unanimous. In contrast, a dissenting partner drastically reduces conformity, showing the power of social support. Asch’s research is criticised for low ecological validity and being a child of its time.
当任务困难（更多信息影响）、参与者必须公开回答，以及当多数人意见一致时，从众率会上升。相反，一个持不同意见的同伴会大幅降低从众，显示出社会支持的力量。Asch 的研究因生态效度低和时代局限性而受到批评。
9. Social Influence: Obedience | 社会影响：服从
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram’s (1963) electric shock experiment revealed alarming obedience levels: 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450-volt shocks to a ‘learner’. Proximity of the authority figure, legitimacy of the setting, and the gradual nature of commands all contributed to high obedience.
服从涉及遵循权威人物的直接命令。Milgram (1963) 的电击实验揭示了令人震惊的服从水平：65% 的参与者对 ‘学习者’ 施加了最高 450 伏的电击。权威人物的靠近程度、环境的正当性以及命令的渐进性质都促成了高服从率。
Milgram’s agency theory explains that people shift from an autonomous state to an agentic state when they perceive themselves as an instrument carrying out another’s wishes. This diffusion of responsibility leads to moral strain, but binding factors (e.g., fear of disruption) keep them obedient. Ethical concerns about deception and psychological harm limit replication but the findings remain influential.
Milgram 的代理理论解释说，当人们视自己为执行他人意愿的工具时，会从自主状态转变为代理状态。这种责任扩散会导致道德压力，但约束因素（如害怕打乱秩序）使他们保持服从。关于欺骗和心理伤害的伦理担忧限制了重复实验，但其发现仍具有影响力。
10. Perception | 感知
Perception is the process of interpreting sensory information to make sense of the world. Gregory’s top-down theory argues that perception is a constructive process driven by expectations, past experience, and knowledge, demonstrated by visual illusions where we fill in gaps. Gibson’s bottom-up theory argues that the environment provides sufficient information for direct perception without inference, emphasising affordances.
感知是解释感官信息以理解世界的过程。Gregory 的自上而下理论认为，感知是一个由预期、过去经验和知识驱动的建构过程，视觉错觉中我们填补空白证明了这一点。Gibson 的自下而上理论则认为，环境提供了足够的直接感知信息，无需推理，并强调给予性。
Monocular depth cues such as linear perspective, relative size, and texture gradient help us judge distance. Size constancy and shape constancy show how we perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in the retinal image. Illusions like the Ponszo illusion trick the brain by exploiting cues normally used for depth perception.
诸如线条透视、相对大小和纹理梯度等单眼深度线索帮助我们判断距离。大小恒常性和形状恒常性表明，尽管视网膜影像发生变化，我们仍将物体感知为不变。像 Ponszo 错觉这样的错觉，通过利用通常用于深度知觉的线索来欺骗大脑。
11. Mental Health | 心理健康
In WJEC psychology, you will study one mental health disorder in depth, typically unipolar depression or addiction. Unipolar depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest (anhedonia), changes in appetite and sleep, fatigue, and poor concentration. For diagnosis, symptoms must be present for at least two weeks and cause significant distress.
在 WJEC 心理学中，你将深入学习一种心理健康障碍，通常是单相抑郁或成瘾。单相抑郁的特征包括持续的情绪低落、兴趣丧失（快感缺失）、食欲和睡眠改变、疲劳以及注意力不集中。要确诊，症状必须持续至少两周并导致显著痛苦。
Biological explanations focus on neurotransmitters: low serotonin levels are linked to mood regulation problems. Psychological explanations include Beck’s negative cognitive triad (negative views of self, world, and future) and Ellis’s ABC model, highlighting irrational beliefs. Treatment approaches combine medication (SSRIs) with cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to address both biology and cognition.
生物学解释关注神经递质：低水平 5-羟色胺与情绪调节问题有关。心理学解释包括 Beck 的负面认知三角（对自我、世界和未来的消极看法）以及 Ellis 的 ABC 模型，强调非理性信念。治疗方法将药物（SSRIs）与认知行为疗法（CBT）结合起来，同时应对生物学和认知因素。
12. Ethics in Psychology Research | 心理学研究伦理
Ethical guidelines protect participants from harm and maintain public trust in psychology. The British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics includes respect, competence, responsibility, and integrity. Key principles are informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, debriefing, and confidentiality.
伦理准则保护参与者免受伤害，并维护公众对心理学的信任。英国心理学会 (BPS) 的伦理规范包括尊重、胜任、责任和诚信。关键原则有知情同意、退出权利、免受伤害的保护、事后解释和保密。
WJEC questions often ask you to apply ethics to a scenario. For example, if an observer watches children without consent, this violates informed consent. Covering all guidelines in your evaluation of studies shows high-level critical thinking. Always link unethical practice to the specific guideline breached.
WJEC 的题目常常要求你将伦理应用于具体情境。例如，如果观察者在未获同意的情况下观察儿童，这就违反了知情同意。在评价研究时涵盖所有指导方针，体现了高层次的批判性思维。始终要将不道德的实践与所违反的具体准则联系起来。
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