Year 11 AQA Science: Core Knowledge Checklist | Year 11 AQA 科学：核心知识点梳理

📚 Year 11 AQA Science: Core Knowledge Checklist | Year 11 AQA 科学：核心知识点梳理

This revision guide brings together the most important concepts from the AQA Combined Science: Trilogy specification for Year 11. It covers essential knowledge in biology, chemistry and physics, helping you focus your revision on the fundamentals that underpin exam success. Each topic is presented with paired English and Chinese explanations to strengthen your understanding and recall.

这份复习指南整理了AQA综合科学（Trilogy）Year 11课程中最核心的概念，涵盖生物学、化学和物理学的基础知识，帮助你聚焦考试成功所必需的关键内容。每个专题均以英中对照的形式呈现，强化你的理解与记忆。

1. Cell Biology Essentials | 细胞生物学基础

All organisms are built from cells. Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals) have a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes, while prokaryotic cells (bacteria) lack a nucleus and instead have a single loop of DNA. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts, a permanent vacuole and a cell wall.

所有生物都由细胞构成。真核细胞（植物和动物）具有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体，而原核细胞（细菌）没有细胞核，只有环状DNA。植物细胞还含有叶绿体、中央液泡和细胞壁。

Microscopes allow us to observe cells. Light microscopes can magnify up to around ×1500, while electron microscopes have much higher resolution and can reveal subcellular structures like ribosomes and plasmids. When calculating magnification or real size, remember: magnification = image size ÷ actual size.

显微镜让我们能够观察细胞。光学显微镜最大放大倍数约1500倍，电子显微镜分辨率更高，能显示核糖体、质粒等亚细胞结构。计算放大倍数或实际尺寸时请记住：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小。

Cells divide by mitosis for growth and repair. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can become specialised. In animals, embryonic and adult stem cells have different potentials; in plants, meristem tissue contains stem cells that can differentiate into any plant cell type.

细胞通过有丝分裂实现生长和修复。干细胞是可以分化为特化细胞的未分化细胞。在动物中，胚胎干细胞和成体干细胞具有不同的分化潜能；植物分生组织中的干细胞能分化为任何类型的植物细胞。

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2. Organisation and Systems | 组织与系统

Digestive enzymes break down large food molecules: amylase converts starch to glucose, proteases digest proteins into amino acids, and lipases split lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Bile, produced by the liver, emulsifies fats and neutralises stomach acid to provide optimal pH for pancreatic enzymes.

消化酶分解大分子食物：淀粉酶将淀粉转化为葡萄糖，蛋白酶将蛋白质消化为氨基酸，脂肪酶将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。肝脏分泌的胆汁能乳化脂肪并中和胃酸，为胰酶提供最适pH。

The circulatory system transports substances around the body. The heart is a double pump: the right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the body. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins return it, and capillaries allow exchange of materials at tissues.

循环系统在体内运输物质。心脏是一个双泵：右心室将缺氧血泵送至肺，左心室将富氧血泵送至全身。动脉将血液带离心脏，静脉将血液送回，毛细血管在组织处进行物质交换。

In plants, xylem transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves by transpiration stream, while phloem moves dissolved sugars bidirectionally by translocation. Leaf structure, including stomata and guard cells, controls gas exchange and water loss.

在植物中，木质部通过蒸腾流将水和矿质离子从根部运送到叶片，韧皮部通过运输作用双向运送溶解的糖类。叶片结构（包括气孔和保卫细胞）控制气体交换和水分散失。

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3. Infection and Bioenergetics | 感染与生物能量学

Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. Viruses replicate inside host cells, while bacteria produce toxins. The body defends itself through physical barriers (skin, mucus), chemical defences (stomach acid, lysozyme) and the immune system, where white blood cells engulf pathogens or produce antibodies.

病原体包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。病毒在宿主细胞内复制，细菌则产生毒素。人体通过物理屏障（皮肤、黏液）、化学防御（胃酸、溶菌酶）以及免疫系统进行防御，白细胞可吞噬病原体或产生抗体。

Vaccination introduces a harmless form of an antigen, triggering antibody production and leaving memory cells that create long-term immunity. Antibiotics treat bacterial infections but do not affect viruses; misuse has led to antibiotic-resistant strains such as MRSA.

疫苗接种引入无害的抗原形式，刺激抗体产生并留下记忆细胞，形成长期免疫。抗生素可治疗细菌感染但对病毒无效；滥用已导致耐抗生素菌株（如MRSA）的出现。

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light energy). The rate is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water; anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid, and in yeast produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.

光合作用在叶绿体中进行：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（需光能）。速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度影响。有氧呼吸从葡萄糖释放能量：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水；肌肉中无氧呼吸产生乳酸，酵母无氧呼吸产生乙醇和二氧化碳。

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4. Homeostasis and Genetics | 稳态与遗传学

Homeostasis keeps internal conditions stable. The nervous system uses electrical impulses along neurones; a reflex arc goes through sensory, relay and motor neurones. The endocrine system releases hormones: insulin lowers blood glucose, glucagon raises it; thyroxine controls metabolic rate; adrenaline prepares for fight or flight.

稳态维持内部环境稳定。神经系统通过神经元传递电冲动；反射弧经过感觉神经元、中间神经元和运动神经元。内分泌系统释放激素：胰岛素降低血糖，胰高血糖素升高血糖；甲状腺素调控代谢率；肾上腺素为“战斗或逃跑”做准备。

DNA is a double helix polymer made of nucleotides. Genes code for proteins. Meiosis produces gametes with half the chromosome number, restoring the full set at fertilisation. Inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis (recessive) and polydactyly (dominant) can be predicted using Punnett squares and family pedigrees.

DNA是由核苷酸组成的双螺旋聚合物。基因编码蛋白质。减数分裂产生的配子染色体数目减半，受精时恢复全套。隐性遗传病（如囊性纤维化）和显性遗传病（如多指症）可利用旁氏表和家系图谱进行预测。

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5. Atomic Structure and Bonding | 原子结构与键合

Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels. Atomic number = number of protons; mass number = protons + neutrons. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

原子由含质子和中子的原子核以及核外分层排布的电子构成。原子序数 = 质子数；质量数 = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素质子数相同而中子数不同。

Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals when electrons are transferred, forming oppositely charged ions held together by strong electrostatic forces. Ionic compounds have high melting points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved. Covalent bonding involves sharing electron pairs between non-metals; simple molecular substances (H₂O, CO₂) have low melting points, while giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, SiO₂) are very strong and have high melting points.

离子键形成于金属与非金属之间，通过电子转移产生带相反电荷的离子，靠强静电引力结合。离子化合物熔点高，熔融或溶于水时导电。共价键涉及非金属原子间共享电子对；简单分子物质（H₂O, CO₂）熔点低，而巨型共价结构（金刚石、石墨、SiO₂）极坚固且熔点很高。

Nanoparticles are 1–100 nm in size and have high surface-area-to-volume ratios, making them useful in catalysts, sunscreens and medicine. Metals form giant lattices with delocalised electrons, allowing them to conduct electricity and be bent into shape.

纳米颗粒尺寸在1–100 nm，具有很高的比表面积，广泛应用于催化剂、防晒霜及医药。金属形成巨型晶格，具有离域电子，因此可导电并被加工成形。

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6. Quantitative Chemistry and Reactions | 定量化学与化学反应

The mole is the unit for amount of substance. One mole of any substance contains 6.02×10²³ particles, and the mass of one mole in grams equals the relative formula mass (Mᵣ). Calculations often use: number of moles = mass ÷ Mᵣ, and concentration (mol/dm³) = moles ÷ volume.

摩尔是物质的量的单位。1摩尔任何物质含有6.02×10²³个微粒，1摩尔物质的质量（克）等于其相对公式质量（Mᵣ）。常用计算：物质的量（mol）= 质量 ÷ Mᵣ；浓度（mol/dm³）= 物质的量 ÷ 体积。

The reactivity series orders metals by their tendency to lose electrons. More reactive metals can displace less reactive ones from compounds. Metals above hydrogen react with acids to produce salts and hydrogen gas. Electrolysis uses electricity to break down ionic compounds into elements: at the cathode, positive ions gain electrons (reduction); at the anode, negative ions lose electrons (oxidation). In aqueous solutions, the products depend on the ion reactivity and concentration.

金属活动性顺序按失电子能力排列。较活泼金属可从化合物中置换出较不活泼金属。位于氢前的金属与酸反应生成盐和氢气。电解利用电流分解离子化合物：阴极发生还原反应（阳离子得电子），阳极发生氧化反应（阴离子失电子）。水溶液中产物取决于离子活性和浓度。

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7. Energy Changes and Rate | 能量变化与反应速率

Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings (e.g. combustion, neutralisation), causing a temperature rise. Endothermic reactions absorb energy (e.g. thermal decomposition, photosynthesis), leading to a temperature drop. Reaction profiles show the energy changes; activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction.

放热反应向环境释放能量（如燃烧、中和），导致温度升高。吸热反应吸收能量（如热分解、光合作用），导致温度下降。反应剖面图显示能量变化；活化能是启动反应所需的最低能量。

Reaction rate depends on temperature, concentration/pressure, surface area and the presence of a catalyst. Collision theory states that particles must collide with sufficient energy (the activation energy) and the correct orientation. A catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy, increasing the rate without being used up.

反应速率受温度、浓度/压强、表面积和催化剂影响。碰撞理论指出，粒子必须发生有效碰撞，即具有足够能量（活化能）和正确取向。催化剂提供低活化能的替代反应路径，加快反应而自身不被消耗。

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8. Organic and Environmental Chemistry | 有机化学与环境化学

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons that can be separated into fractions by fractional distillation. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂. They burn in plentiful oxygen to produce CO₂ and H₂O. Alkenes contain a C=C double bond (CₙH₂ₙ) and turn bromine water from orange to colourless, a test for unsaturation.

原油是碳氢化合物的混合物，可通过分馏分离为不同馏分。烷烃是饱和烃，通式为CₙH₂ₙ₊₂，在充足氧气中燃烧生成CO₂和H₂O。烯烃含有C=C双键（CₙH₂ₙ），可使溴水由橙色变为无色，用于检验不饱和键。

Polymers are long molecules formed from small monomers; addition polymers are made from alkenes. The greenhouse effect is caused by CO₂, methane and water vapour trapping heat. Human activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation) increase CO₂ levels, contributing to climate change. Other pollutants include carbon monoxide (toxic), sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (acid rain) and particulates (respiratory issues).

聚合物是由小分子单体形成的长链分子；加成聚合物由烯烃制得。温室效应由CO₂、甲烷和水蒸气截留热量引起。人类活动（燃烧化石燃料、砍伐森林）增加了CO₂含量，加剧气候变化。其他污染物包括一氧化碳（有毒）、二氧化硫和氮氧化物（酸雨）以及颗粒物（呼吸系统问题）。

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9. Energy and Electricity | 能量与电学

Energy can be stored in kinetic, gravitational potential, thermal, elastic, chemical and nuclear stores. It is transferred by heating, mechanical work, electrical work or radiation. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred. Power (watts) = energy transferred (J) ÷ time (s).

能量可储存于动能、重力势能、热能、弹性势能、化学能和核能储库中，通过加热、机械做功、电做功或辐射进行传递。能量守恒定律指出能量不会凭空产生或消失，只能被传递。功率（瓦）= 传递的能量（焦） ÷ 时间（秒）。

Electric current is the flow of charge. In a single closed loop, current is the same everywhere; in parallel circuits, the current splits. Potential difference (voltage) is measured across a component. Resistance (Ω) = potential difference (V) ÷ current (A). Ohm’s Law applies when resistance is constant. In series, total resistance increases; in parallel, total resistance decreases.

电流是电荷的流动。在单一闭合回路中，电流处处相等；并联电路中电流分流。电势差（电压）在元件两端测量。电阻（Ω）= 电势差（V）÷ 电流（A）。当电阻恒定时遵循欧姆定律。串联总电阻增大；并联总电阻减小。

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10. Particle Model and Atomic Structure | 粒子模型与原子结构

The particle model explains density, changes of state and pressure. Density (kg/m³) = mass (kg) ÷ volume (m³). Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of particles. Heating increases internal energy; during a change of state, temperature stays constant while energy goes into breaking bonds (latent heat).

粒子模型解释密度、物态变化和压强。密度（kg/m³）= 质量（kg）÷ 体积（m³）。内能是粒子动能与势能之和。加热使内能增加；在物态变化时温度保持不变，能量用于破坏键合（即潜热）。

Atoms are radioactive if their nuclei are unstable. There are three types of nuclear radiation: alpha (α) – two protons and two neutrons, heavily ionising, stopped by paper; beta (β) – fast electron, moderately ionising, stopped by aluminium; gamma (γ) – electromagnetic wave, weakly ionising, reduced by thick lead. Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. Nuclear equations show the changes in atomic and mass numbers.

原子核不稳定即具有放射性。核辐射有三种：α辐射（两个质子+两个中子，电离能力强，可被纸阻挡）；β辐射（高速电子，电离能力中等，可被铝阻挡）；γ辐射（电磁波，电离能力弱，需厚铅板减弱）。半衰期指样本中一半放射性核发生衰变所需的时间。核方程显示原子序数和质量数的变化。

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11. Forces and Motion | 力与运动

Forces can be contact (friction, tension) or non-contact (gravity, magnetism). Newton’s First Law: an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. Newton’s Second Law: F = m a, where resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²). Weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg).

力可分为接触力（摩擦力、张力）和非接触力（重力、磁力）。牛顿第一定律：物体在不受合力作用时保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律：F = m a，合力（N）= 质量（kg）× 加速度（m/s²）。重量（N）= 质量（kg）× 重力场强度（N/kg）。

Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Thinking distance increases with speed, distractions, alcohol; braking distance increases with speed, poor tyre condition, wet or icy roads. Momentum (p = m v) is conserved in collisions. Work done (J) = force (N) × distance moved in direction of force (m).

停车距离 = 反应距离 + 制动距离。反应距离随速度、分心、饮酒而增加；制动距离随速度、轮胎磨损、湿滑道路而增加。动量（p = m v）在碰撞中守恒。做功（J）= 力（N）× 在力的方向上移动的距离（m）。

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12. Waves and Magnetism | 波与电磁学

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In transverse waves (light, water), oscillations are perpendicular to energy transfer; in longitudinal waves (sound, seismic P-waves), oscillations are parallel. Wave equation: wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m). Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma – all travel at the same speed in a vacuum.

波传递能量而不传递物质。横波（光、水波）的振动方向与能量传递方向垂直；纵波（声波、地震P波）的振动方向与传递方向平行。波速公式：波速（m/s）= 频率（Hz）× 波长（m）。电磁波谱连续分布：无线电、微波、红外、可见光、紫外、X射线、γ射线——在真空中传播速度相同。

Magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel, unlike attract. An electromagnet uses a coil of wire around an iron core; its magnetic field can be switched on and off. The motor effect occurs when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; Fleming’s left-hand rule predicts the direction of force. Transformers change alternating voltage using electromagnetic induction, but only work with a.c.

磁体具有N极和S极；同名极相斥，异名极相吸。电磁铁由线圈绕在铁芯上制成，其磁场可开关。当载流导体置于磁场中会产生电动机效应；弗莱明左手定则可判断力的方向。变压器利用电磁感应改变交流电压，仅对交流电有效。

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