📚 Year 11 Eduqas Sociology: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | Eduqas 社会学：关键术语速记指南
This guide brings together the most important sociological terms you need for the Eduqas GCSE Sociology exam. Each term is defined clearly and paired with a Chinese translation to support bilingual revision. Understanding these concepts will help you write precise, analytical answers across all topics.
本指南汇集了 Eduqas GCSE 社会学考试最重要的术语。每个术语都有清晰的定义，并配有中文翻译，方便双语复习。掌握这些概念有助于你在所有主题中写出准确、有分析力的答案。
1. Core Sociological Concepts | 核心社会学概念
Sociologists use a set of core concepts to study how society is organised and how individuals interact with social structures. These foundational ideas appear in every topic of the specification.
社会学家使用一套核心概念来研究社会的组织方式以及个体与社会结构的互动。这些基础概念出现在大纲的每个主题中。
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a particular society or social group. It includes language, beliefs, values, norms, customs and material objects. Culture is learnt, not inherited biologically.
文化指特定社会或社会群体的整个生活方式，包括语言、信仰、价值观、规范、风俗和物质产品。文化是习得的，而非生物遗传。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that society expects its members to follow in specific situations. For example, in the UK it is a norm to form a queue when waiting for a bus.
规范是社会期望其成员在特定情境中遵守的不成文行为准则。例如，在英国，等公交车时排队是一种规范。
Values are the broad beliefs about what is right and wrong, desirable or undesirable, that underpin norms. Values give norms their meaning and justification.
价值观是有关对错、可取与否的广泛信念，是规范的基础。价值观赋予规范意义和正当性。
Status is the social position a person holds within society. It can be ascribed (assigned at birth, like sex or ethnicity) or achieved (earned through effort, such as becoming a doctor).
地位是个人在社会中所处的位置。地位可以是先赋的（与生俱来，如性别或种族）或自获的（通过努力获得，如成为医生）。
Role describes the expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular status. A person holds multiple roles simultaneously, which can sometimes lead to role conflict.
角色描述与特定地位对应的预期行为模式。一个人同时扮演多重角色，有时会导致角色冲突。
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. It transmits norms, values and roles from one generation to the next.
社会化是个体学习所属社会文化的终身过程。它把规范、价值观和角色代代相传。
Identity is how individuals see and define themselves, and how others see them. It can be shaped by gender, class, ethnicity, age and other social factors.
身份是个体如何看待和定义自己，以及他人如何看待自己。它可以受到性别、阶级、种族、年龄和其他社会因素的影响。
2. Socialisation | 社会化
Socialisation explains how we become functioning members of society. It operates through different agencies and stages across our lives.
社会化解释了我们如何成为正常运作的社会成员。它在我们的生命过程中通过不同的机构和阶段进行。
Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood, usually within the family. It involves learning basic language, norms and values. The family is often seen as the main agency of primary socialisation.
初级社会化发生在幼年时期，通常是在家庭中。它涉及学习基本的语言、规范和价值观。家庭常被视为初级社会化的主要机构。
Secondary socialisation takes place later in life through agencies such as schools, peer groups, the mass media and the workplace. It builds on primary socialisation and teaches more specific skills and roles.
次级社会化通过学校、同辈群体、大众传媒和工作场所等机构在之后的生活中进行。它以初级社会化为基础，传授更具体的技能和角色。
Agencies of socialisation are the structured groups and institutions that transmit culture. Key agencies include the family, education system, peer group, mass media and religion.
社会化机构是传播文化的结构化群体和制度。关键机构包括家庭、教育系统、同辈群体、大众传媒和宗教。
Feral children are children who have grown up with little or no human contact. Their cases illustrate that without socialisation, humans do not develop language, norms or a sense of identity.
野孩是在极少或无人接触的环境中长大的儿童。他们的例子说明，没有社会化，人类无法发展出语言、规范或身份意识。
Nature versus nurture is a debate about whether human behaviour is determined by biology (nature) or by social learning and environment (nurture). Most sociologists emphasise the importance of nurture.
先天与后天之争探讨人类行为是由生物学因素（先天）决定，还是由社会学习与环境（后天）决定。多数社会学家强调后天的重要性。
3. Social Identity | 社会身份
Social identity refers to the multiple ways individuals are defined by their membership of social groups. Identities are both personal and social, and they can change over time.
社会身份指个体因其社会群体成员身份而被定义的多重方式。身份既是个人的也是社会的，并且会随时间改变。
Gender identity is shaped by social expectations of masculinity and femininity. It is largely learnt through gender role socialisation rather than being purely biological.
性别身份由社会对男性气质和女性气质的期待所塑造。它主要是通过性别角色社会化习得的，而非纯粹生物决定。
Ethnic identity refers to a sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group. It can be expressed through common language, religion, traditions and shared history.
民族身份指属于特定民族群体的归属感。它可以通过共同的语言、宗教、传统和共享历史来表达。
Class identity is how individuals identify with a social class and are shaped by class-based cultural experiences, such as language patterns, tastes and values.
阶级身份是个体如何认同某一社会阶级，并受到基于阶级的文化经历（如语言模式、品味和价值观）的塑造。
Age identity varies across the life course. Different age groups are expected to behave in certain ways, and society attaches different statuses to childhood, youth, adulthood and old age.
年龄身份在生命历程中有所不同。不同年龄群体被期待按照特定方式行事，社会赋予儿童、青年、成年和老年不同的地位。
Hybrid identity emerges when individuals draw on two or more cultural traditions to form a combined, complex identity. This is increasingly common in multicultural societies.
混合身份指个体吸取两种或多种文化传统而形成的一个融合、复杂的身份。这在多元文化社会中日益普遍。
Stereotyping is the oversimplified and often negative application of characteristics to all members of a group, ignoring individual differences. It can reinforce inequality.
刻板印象是将简单化且往往带有负面色彩的特征套用于某群体所有成员，忽视个体差异的做法。它会加剧不平等。
4. Social Stratification | 社会分层
Social stratification describes how society is organised into layers, or strata, based on unequal distribution of resources. The Eduqas specification pays close attention to class and life chances.
社会分层描述了社会如何因资源分配不均而划分为层级。Eduqas 大纲尤其关注阶级和生活机会。
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes or other divisions. It reflects persistent inequalities in wealth, income, power and prestige.
社会分层是将个体按社会阶级、种姓或其他方式进行的等级划分。它反映出财富、收入、权力和声望的持续不平等。
Social class is a key form of stratification in industrial societies. It is typically measured by occupation, income and education. The UK class structure is often divided into upper, middle and working classes.
社会阶级是工业社会中分层的关键形式。通常通过职业、收入和教育来衡量。英国阶级结构常分为上等、中等和工人阶级。
Life chances refer to an individual’s opportunities to access socially desirable resources such as good housing, healthcare and education. Sociologists study how class, gender and ethnicity affect life chances.
生活机会指个体获得理想社会资源（如良好住房、医疗和教育）的机会。社会学家研究阶级、性别和种族如何影响生活机会。
Absolute poverty means lacking the basic necessities to survive, such as adequate food, clean water and shelter. It is a fixed standard, often used in global comparisons.
绝对贫困指缺乏维持生存的基本必需品，如足够的食物、清洁饮水和住所。它是一个固定标准，常用于全球比较。
Relative poverty is defined in relation to the general living standards of a particular society. A person is in relative poverty if their income falls significantly below the median, so they cannot fully participate in normal social life.
相对贫困是相对于特定社会的普遍生活水平而界定的。如果一个人的收入远低于中位数，无法充分参与正常社会生活，就处于相对贫困。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social positions. It can be upward or downward. In a meritocratic society, social mobility should be possible based on effort and ability.
社会流动是个体或群体在社会位置间的流动。它可以是向上或向下的。在精英主义社会里，社会流动应基于努力和能力而可能发生。
Wealth and income are not the same. Income is the flow of money received from work or investments, while wealth refers to the total value of assets owned, such as property and savings.
财富与收入不是一回事。收入是通过工作或投资获得的资金流入，而财富指拥有的资产总价值，如房产和储蓄。
5. Power and Authority | 权力与权威
Power and authority are central to understanding political and social structures. Max Weber’s typology is a key part of the Eduqas content on power.
权力与权威是理解政治和社会结构的核心。马克斯·韦伯的分类是 Eduqas 关于权力的重要内容。
Power is the ability of an individual or group to impose their will on others, even against resistance. It can be exercised through force, influence or control of resources.
权力是个人或群体将自己的意志强加于他人的能力，即使遭遇抵抗。它可以通过武力、影响或资源控制来实现。
Authority is legitimate power that people accept as right and justified. When citizens obey a police officer, they are recognising the officer’s authority.
权威是人民认可为正当且合理的合法权力。公民服从警察时，正是在承认其权威。
Coercion involves using force or threats to make people comply. It differs from authority because it lacks legitimacy and relies on fear.
强制涉及使用武力或威胁使人服从。它有别于权威，因为缺乏合法性并依赖恐惧。
Charismatic authority, according to Weber, rests on the personal magnetism and appeal of a leader. It often emerges during crises or revolutionary periods.
魅力型权威，根据韦伯，基于领导者个人的魅力和感召力。它通常出现在危机或革命时期。
Traditional authority is based on long-established customs and practices, such as the authority of a monarch or tribal elder. Its legitimacy comes from tradition.
传统型权威建立在长期形成的风俗和实践之上，如君主或部落长老的权威。其合法性来自传统。
Legal-rational authority is found in modern bureaucratic states. It is based on a system of formal rules and laws, and power resides in the office rather than the individual.
法理型权威存在于现代官僚制国家。它基于正式的规则和法律体系，权力属于职位而非个人。
Political participation refers to the ways citizens engage in political processes, such as voting, joining parties or protesting. Sociologists study how participation varies by class, gender and age.
政治参与指公民参与政治过程的方式，如投票、加入政党或抗议。社会学家研究参与如何因阶级、性别和年龄而异。
6. Sociological Research Methods | 社会学研究方法
Research methods are the techniques sociologists use to collect and analyse data. Understanding these terms is essential for evaluating evidence in the exam.
研究方法是社会学家收集和分析数据的技术。理解这些术语对考试中评估证据至关重要。
Quantitative data is numerical information, such as statistics from surveys or official records. It is often used to identify patterns and test hypotheses.
定量数据是数字信息，如来自问卷调查或官方记录的统计资料。它常被用于识别模式和检验假设。
Qualitative data is non-numerical, descriptive information, such as interview transcripts, diaries and observations. It provides depth and insight into meanings and experiences.
定性数据是非数字的描述性信息，如访谈记录、日记和观察资料。它能深入且细致地揭示意义和经历。
Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher for the specific study, through methods like questionnaires, interviews or experiments.
一手数据是研究者为特定研究亲自收集的资料，方法包括问卷、访谈或实验。
Secondary data is information that already exists, having been collected by someone else for a different purpose. Examples include official statistics, historical documents and previous research.
二手数据是已存在的、由他人为不同目的收集的信息。例子包括官方统计、历史文献和以往研究。
Reliability means that a research method would produce similar results if repeated again under the same conditions. Questionnaires with standardised questions tend to have high reliability.
信度指研究方法在相同条件下重复进行时会得出相似结果。标准化问题的问卷往往信度较高。
Validity refers to whether the research truly measures or captures the social reality it claims to study. In-depth interviews can offer high validity but may lack reliability.
效度指研究是否真正测量或捕捉了其声称研究的社会现实。深度访谈可能效度较高，但信度可能不足。
Sampling methods include random sampling, stratified sampling and snowball sampling. The choice of sample affects how generalisable the findings are to the wider population.
抽样方法包括随机抽样、分层抽样和滚雪球抽样。抽样方式的选择会影响研究结果对更广泛人群的推广性。
Ethical considerations protect participants’ wellbeing and rights. Key principles include informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality and avoiding harm.
伦理考量保护参与者的福祉和权利。关键原则包括知情同意、匿名、保密和避免伤害。
7. Key Terms in Family | 家庭关键术语
The study of families and households examines how family structures have changed, the roles within families, and how families are linked to wider society.
家庭与家户研究探讨家庭结构如何变化、家庭内部角色以及家庭与更广泛社会的联系。
Family is a social group based on kinship ties, which may be by blood, marriage or adoption. The nuclear family consists of a parent or parents and their dependent children.
家庭是基于血缘、婚姻或收养的亲属关系的社会群体。核心家庭由父母一方或双方及其受抚养子女组成。
Household refers to a person living alone or a group of people sharing the same living space and resources. Not all households are families.
家户指单独居住者或共享同一居住空间和资源的一群人。并非所有家户都是家庭。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts and cousins, often living nearby or in the same house.
扩展家庭包括核心家庭之外的亲属，如祖父母、姑姨和表亲，他们常常住在附近或同一住所。
Reconstituted family (or blended family) forms when one or both partners bring children from a previous relationship into a new household. This structure is growing due to divorce and re-marriage.
重组家庭（或混合家庭）由伴侣一方或双方带着之前关系中的子女组成新家户。由于离婚和再婚，这种结构日益增多。
Lone-parent family consists of a single parent living with their dependent children. These families face distinct economic and social challenges.
单亲家庭由单亲与其受抚养子女组成。这些家庭面临独特的经济和社会挑战。
Conjugal roles describe the domestic division of labour between partners. Segregated conjugal roles involve separate tasks, while joint conjugal roles involve sharing domestic work and decision-making.
婚姻角色描述伴侣之间家务分工。隔离式婚姻角色指任务分开，而联合式婚姻角色指共同分担家务和决策。
Symmetrical family is a term used by Young and Willmott to describe a more equal family form where roles are shared and the relationship is more democratic. They saw this as a trend in modern Britain.
对称家庭是杨和维尔莫特用来描述更为平等的家庭形式的术语，其中角色共享，关系更民主。他们视此为现代英国的一种趋势。
Family diversity recognises the wide variety of family forms in contemporary society, beyond the traditional nuclear family. This includes cultural, class and lifestyle variations.
家庭多样性承认当代社会中除传统核心家庭以外的多种家庭形式，包括文化、阶级和生活方式差异。
8. Key Terms in Education | 教育关键术语
Education is a major agency of socialisation and a key area where social inequalities are reproduced. The following terms help explain processes within schools.
教育是社会化的主要机构，也是社会不平等得以再产生的关键领域。下列术语有助于解释学校内部的运作过程。
Formal curriculum is the official programme of subjects and content that schools are required to teach. It includes timetabled lessons and national curriculum subjects.
正式课程是学校被要求教授的正规科目和内容计划，包括排课的科目和国家课程科目。
Hidden curriculum refers to the informal lessons in norms, values and attitudes that pupils learn through the school experience, such as punctuality, obedience and competition.
隐性课程指学生通过学校经历学到的非正式规范、价值观和态度，如守时、服从和竞争意识。
Labelling is the process of attaching a definition or category to a student, such as ‘bright’ or ‘troublesome’. Labels can affect teachers’ expectations and a student’s self-image.
贴标签是给学生贴上某种定义或类别的过程，如“聪明”或“捣蛋”。标签会影响教师的期待和学生的自我形象。
Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a label or prediction becomes true because people believe it and act accordingly. A student labelled as low ability may lose motivation and underperform, confirming the label.
自我实现预言指一个标签或预言因人们相信并据以行动而变为现实。被贴上低能力标签的学生可能丧失动力、表现不佳，从而证实该标签。
Setting and streaming involve grouping students by ability. Streaming places students in the same group for most subjects, while setting places them in different groups per subject. Both can affect attainment and identity.
能力分层与全盘分流涉及按能力将学生分组。全盘分流让学生在大多科目中处于同一组，而能力分层则按科目分组。两者均可影响成绩和身份。
Anti-school subculture is a group within a school that rejects its values and norms, often leading to disruptive behaviour. This can develop as a response to low status in the school’s status hierarchy.
反学校亚文化是学校里抵制其价值观和规范的群体，常导致破坏性行为。这可能因学生在学校地位等级中地位较低而萌生。
Marketisation of education refers to policies that make schools compete for students, like league tables and parental choice. Critics argue it widens inequality between schools.
教育市场化指通过排行榜和家长择校等政策，让学校竞争生源。批评者认为这拉大了校际差距。
Attainment gap is the difference in educational achievement between different social groups, such as by class, gender or ethnicity. Explaining and closing this gap is a major sociological concern.
成绩差距是不同社会群体（如阶级、性别或种族）在教育成就上的差异。解释并缩小这一差距是社会学的重要关切。
9. Key Terms in Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨关键术语
Sociologists study why some behaviours are defined as deviant or criminal, who commits crime, and how society responds. These terms are essential for analysis.
社会学家研究为何某些行为被界定为越轨或犯罪、谁实施犯罪以及社会如何应对。这些术语对分析至关重要。
Deviance is any behaviour that goes against the norms and expectations of a particular society or group. What is deviant varies across cultures and over time.
越轨指任何违背特定社会或群体规范与预期的行为。何为越轨因文化不同且随时间变化。
Crime is behaviour that breaks the formal, written laws of a society. While all crimes are deviant, not all deviance is criminal.
犯罪指触犯社会正式成文法律的行为。虽然所有犯罪都是越轨，但并非所有越轨行为都是犯罪。
Social control refers to the mechanisms society uses to regulate behaviour and ensure conformity. It can be formal, such as the police and courts, or informal, such as disapproval from peers or family.
社会控制指社会用来规范行为并确保从众的机制。它可以是正式的，如警察和法庭，也可以是非正式的，如同伴或家庭的反对。
Anomie, in Durkheim’s theory, describes a state of normlessness where society’s shared moral standards break down, often during rapid social change, leading to increased deviance.
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