📚 Year 11 SQA Economics: Core Knowledge Review | Year 11 SQA 经济核心知识点梳理
As you prepare for the Year 11 SQA Economics assessment, a clear understanding of the key concepts is vital. This revision guide consolidates the essential topics you must master, using concise explanations in both English and Chinese to support your bilingual learning journey.
在备战 SQA 11 年级经济学考试时，牢固掌握核心概念至关重要。本文为你梳理必须掌握的基础知识点，通过简洁的中英双语解释，助力你的双语学习。
1. The Basic Economic Problem | 基本经济问题
Scarcity is the central economic problem: we have limited resources but unlimited wants, forcing societies and individuals to make choices.
稀缺性是核心的经济问题：我们拥有有限的资源，但欲望是无限的，这迫使社会和个人做出选择。
The factors of production – land, labour, capital and enterprise – are the resources used to produce goods and services. Each factor earns a reward: rent, wages, interest and profit respectively.
生产要素——土地、劳动力、资本和企业家才能——是用于生产商品和服务的资源，各自获得报酬：地租、工资、利息和利润。
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative that must be given up when a choice is made. It represents the real cost of every decision.
机会成本是指做出选择时必须放弃的次优选项的价值，它代表了每项决策的实际成本。
A production possibility curve (PPC) illustrates the maximum combinations of two goods that can be produced with existing resources and technology, highlighting trade-offs, efficiency and opportunity cost.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）展示了在现有资源和技术下能够生产的两种商品最大数量的组合，突出权衡、效率与机会成本。
2. Demand and Supply | 需求与供给
The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as price falls, quantity demanded rises, and vice versa. This inverse relationship is shown by a downward-sloping demand curve.
需求定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格下降时需求量上升，反之亦然。这种反向关系表现为需求曲线向下倾斜。
The law of supply states that, ceteris paribus, as price rises, quantity supplied increases, and vice versa, giving an upward-sloping supply curve.
供给定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格上升时供给量增加，反之亦然，因此供给曲线向上倾斜。
Market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, determining the market-clearing price. At this point, there is no tendency for change.
市场均衡发生在需求量等于供给量之处，此时形成市场出清价格，不存在变化的趋势。
Shifts in the demand or supply curves are caused by non-price determinants such as income, tastes, costs of production and technology. A shift leads to a new equilibrium price and quantity.
需求曲线或供给曲线的移动由非价格决定因素引起，如收入、偏好、生产成本和技术。移动会导致新的均衡价格和数量。
3. Price Elasticity of Demand and Supply | 需求与供给的价格弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. It is calculated as:
需求的价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。其计算公式为：
PED = %Δ Quantity Demanded ÷ %Δ Price
If PED > 1, demand is elastic (consumers are highly responsive); if PED < 1, demand is inelastic. A PED of exactly 1 is unit elastic.
若 PED > 1，需求富有弹性（消费者反应敏感）；若 PED < 1，需求缺乏弹性；PED 恰好等于 1 表示单位弹性。
Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price, using a similar formula. Factors such as time period and spare production capacity determine PES.
供给的价格弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度，公式类似。时间周期和闲置产能等因素决定着 PES。
Key factors affecting PED include the availability of substitutes, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, and the proportion of income spent on the good.
影响 PED 的关键因素包括替代品的可得性、商品是必需品还是奢侈品，以及该商品支出占收入的比例。
4. Market Failure | 市场失灵
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, resulting in a net social welfare loss. Common causes include externalities, public goods and information problems.
当自由市场无法有效配置资源，导致社会净福利损失时，就发生了市场失灵。常见原因包括外部性、公共品和信息问题。
Externalities are costs or benefits that affect third parties not involved in the transaction. Negative externalities (e.g., pollution) lead to overproduction, while positive externalities (e.g., vaccinations) lead to underproduction.
外部性是指影响未参与交易的第三方的成本或收益。负外部性（如污染）导致生产过剩，而正外部性（如疫苗接种）导致生产不足。
Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, which means they suffer from the free-rider problem and are underprovided by the market. Examples include street lighting and flood defences.
公共物品具有非排他性和非竞争性，这意味着存在搭便车问题，市场对它们的供给不足。例子包括路灯和防洪设施。
Information gaps, where consumers or producers lack perfect knowledge about costs and benefits, can also lead to market failure, particularly in markets for merit and demerit goods.
信息缺口（消费者或生产者对成本及收益缺乏完全信息）也会导致市场失灵，在优效品和劣效品市场中尤为突出。
5. Government Intervention in Markets | 政府对市场的干预
Governments intervene to correct market failures using a range of microeconomic tools, including indirect taxes, subsidies, price controls and regulation.
政府通过一系列微观经济工具干预市场以纠正市场失灵，包括间接税、补贴、价格管制和法规。
An indirect tax on a good with negative externalities (e.g., a landfill tax) increases the private cost and reduces consumption, internalising the external cost.
对具有负外部性的商品征收间接税（如垃圾填埋税）会提高私人成本并减少消费，从而将外部成本内部化。
Subsidies lower the cost of production for goods with positive externalities, shifting the supply curve to the right and encouraging higher output.
补贴降低了具有正外部性商品的生产成本，使供给曲线向右移动，鼓励增加产量。
Maximum price controls (price ceilings) can make essentials more affordable but may create shortages; minimum prices (price floors) can support producers but may lead to surpluses.
最高价格管制（价格上限）可使必需品更实惠，但可能造成短缺；最低价格（价格下限）可支援生产者，但可能导致过剩。
6. Macroeconomic Objectives | 宏观经济目标
Governments typically pursue four main macroeconomic objectives: sustainable economic growth, low unemployment, price stability (low inflation), and a satisfactory balance of payments on the current account.
政府通常追求四大宏观经济目标：可持续的经济增长、低失业率、物价稳定（低通货膨胀）以及理想的经常账户收支平衡。
These objectives are measured by key indicators: the GDP growth rate, the unemployment rate, the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the current account balance as a percentage of GDP.
这些目标通过关键指标来衡量：GDP 增长率、失业率、消费者物价指数（CPI）以及经常账户余额占 GDP 的比例。
Potential conflicts can arise between goals; for instance, expansionary policies to reduce unemployment may fuel inflation or worsen the trade deficit.
各目标之间可能存在冲突；例如，降低失业率的扩张性政策可能助长通货膨胀或加剧贸易逆差。
7. Economic Growth | 经济增长
Economic growth refers to an increase in the real output of an economy over time, commonly measured by the percentage change in real GDP.
经济增长是指经济实际产出在一段时间内的增长，通常用实际 GDP 的百分比变化来衡量。
Short-run growth is often driven by increases in aggregate demand (AD), while long-run growth relies on expanding the economy’s productive capacity through investment, innovation and improved productivity.
短期增长通常由总需求（AD）增加驱动，而长期增长则依赖于通过投资、创新和生产率提升来扩大经济生产能力。
Benefits of sustained growth include higher average living standards, increased employment opportunities and greater tax revenues for public services.
持续增长的好处包括提高平均生活水平、增加就业机会以及为公共服务带来更多税收收入。
However, growth can also bring costs such as environmental degradation, resource depletion and rising inequality if the benefits are unevenly distributed.
然而，增长也可能带来成本，如环境退化、资源枯竭以及收益分配不均时的不平等加剧。
8. Unemployment | 失业
Unemployment occurs when people who are willing and able to work cannot find a job. The claimant count and Labour Force Survey (LFS) are two common measures used in the UK.
失业是指愿意并且有能力工作的人找不到工作的情况。英国常用的衡量方法包括申请失业救济人数和劳动力调查（LFS）。
Types of unemployment include cyclical (caused by weak aggregate demand), structural (mismatch of skills or locations), frictional (short-term between jobs) and seasonal.
失业的类型包括周期性失业（由总需求疲弱引起）、结构性失业（技能或地点不匹配）、摩擦性失业（工作转换的短期失业）和季节性失业。
The costs of unemployment extend beyond lost output to reduced tax revenues, higher benefit spending, and social problems such as loss of self-esteem and health issues.
失业的成本不仅限于产出损失，还包括税收减少、福利支出增加，以及自尊心丧失、健康问题等社会问题。
9. Inflation | 通货膨胀
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level, reducing the purchasing power of money. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is the main measure used in the SQA context.
通货膨胀是总体物价水平的持续上涨，削弱了货币购买力。在 SQA 课程语境下，消费者物价指数（CPI）是主要衡量指标。
Demand-pull inflation arises when aggregate demand grows faster than the economy’s productive capacity, creating upward pressure on prices.
需求拉动型通货膨胀发生在总需求增长快于经济生产能力时，对价格产生上行压力。
Cost-push inflation is caused by increases in the costs of production, such as higher wages or energy prices, shifting the SRAS curve to the left.
成本推动型通货膨胀源于生产成本的上升，如工资或能源价格上涨，导致短期总供给曲线向左移动。
Consequences of high inflation include reduced real incomes, menu costs (costs of changing prices), shoe-leather costs (costs of reducing money holdings), and uncertainty that can deter investment.
高通货膨胀的后果包括实际收入下降、菜单成本（改价成本）、鞋底成本（减少现金持有的成本）以及可能抑制投资的不确定性。
10. International Trade | 国际贸易
International trade allows countries to specialise based on comparative advantage, leading to higher global output and a wider variety of goods for consumers.
国际贸易使各国基于比较优势进行专业化生产，从而提高全球产量，并为消费者提供更丰富的商品种类。
Free trade is promoted by removing barriers such as tariffs (taxes on imports), quotas (quantity limits) and subsidies to domestic exporters.
自由贸易通过消除关税（进口税）、配额（数量限制）以及对国内出口商的补贴等壁垒来推进。
However, governments sometimes adopt protectionist policies to shield domestic industries, protect jobs, or nurture infant industries, though this can raise prices and risk retaliation.
然而，政府有时会采取贸易保护主义政策来保护国内产业、就业或培育幼稚产业，但这可能抬高价格并引发报复风险。
Exchange rates play a crucial role: a depreciation of the domestic currency makes exports cheaper and imports dearer, improving the trade balance, while an appreciation has the opposite effect.
汇率起着关键作用：本币贬值使出口更便宜、进口更昂贵，从而改善贸易平衡；升值则产生相反效果。
Published by TutorHao | Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com
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