📚 CAIE Year 11 Chemistry: Terminology Quick-Memorization Guide | CAIE 十一年级化学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the language of chemistry is half the battle won. This guide breaks down the most important CAIE Year 11 chemistry terms into logical groups, complete with memory hooks, word origins, and visual cues to help you recall definitions quickly under exam conditions. Work through each section to build a mental glossary that will serve you from atomic structure right through to organic chemistry.
掌握化学的语言，就等于打赢了一半的仗。这份指南将 CAIE 十一年级化学最重要的术语按逻辑分组，并配有记忆钩子、词源和视觉提示，帮助你在考试条件下快速回忆起定义。请逐节学习，构建一个从原子结构一直到有机化学都能派上用场的心理词汇表。
1. Atomic Structure Essentials | 原子结构基础
The building blocks of matter are described using terms that encode their behaviour. ‘Atom’ comes from Greek ‘atomos’ meaning indivisible – ironic, but historically helpful. ‘Proton’ (positive, heavy) and ‘neutron’ (neutral, heavy) both reside in the nucleus, while ‘electron’ (negative, tiny mass) orbits in shells. Remember: protons determine the element’s identity, neutrons affect isotope mass, and electrons govern chemical reactions.
物质的基本组成单元用术语描述，这些术语本身编码了它们的行为。’Atom’（原子）来自希腊语 ‘atomos’，意为不可再分——这颇具讽刺意味，但有助于历史记忆。’Proton’（质子，带正电，质量大）和 ‘neutron’（中子，不带电，质量大）都位于原子核中，而 ‘electron’（电子，带负电，质量极小）在电子层上运动。记住：质子决定元素的身份，中子影响同位素的质量，电子则主宰化学反应。
Use the mnemonic ‘APE MAN’ for atomic math: Atomic number = number of Protons = number of Electrons (in a neutral atom); Mass number – Atomic number = number of Neutrons. The term ‘isotope’ refers to atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons – same protons, different mass. Think ‘iso-‘ (same) + ‘topos’ (place in periodic table).
使用助记短语 ‘APE MAN’ 来记忆原子数学：Atomic number（原子序数）= 质子数 = 电子数（在中性原子中）；Mass number（质量数）– 原子序数 = 中子数。术语 ‘isotope’（同位素）指同一元素中中子数不同的原子——质子数相同，质量不同。联想 ‘iso-‘（相同）+ ‘topos’（在周期表中的位置）。
Key terms to drill: ‘relative atomic mass (Aᵣ)’ – weighted average mass of isotopes on a scale where ¹²C = 12; ‘relative molecular mass (Mᵣ)’ – sum of relative atomic masses in a molecule; ‘relative formula mass’ – same concept for ionic compounds. Always state ‘relative’ to show it has no units.
需要熟练掌握的关键术语：’relative atomic mass (Aᵣ)’（相对原子质量）——以 ¹²C = 12 为基准的同位素加权平均质量；’relative molecular mass (Mᵣ)’（相对分子质量）——分子中各原子的相对原子质量之和；’relative formula mass’（相对式量）——对离子化合物采用同样的概念。务必加上 ‘relative’ 以表明该值没有单位。
2. Bonding & Structure Language | 化学键与结构语言
The way atoms stick together is packed with descriptive terms. ‘Ionic bonding’ is electron transfer from a metal to a non-metal, forming oppositely charged ions held in a giant lattice – think ‘I Owe u a transfer’. ‘Covalent bonding’ is electron sharing between non-metals; the term breaks down to ‘co-‘ (together) + ‘valent’ (related to valence electrons). ‘Metallic bonding’ is the attraction between positive metal ions and a sea of delocalised electrons – picture a lattice of positive charges swimming in a mobile electron soup.
原子结合的方式充满了描述性术语。’Ionic bonding’（离子键）是电子从金属向非金属转移，形成带相反电荷的离子，它们在巨型晶格中相互吸引——可以联想 ‘I Owe u a transfer’（我欠你一次转移）。’Covalent bonding’（共价键）是非金属之间的电子共享；这个词可拆分为 ‘co-‘（共同） + ‘valent’（与价电子相关）。’Metallic bonding’（金属键）是正金属离子与离域电子海之间的吸引力——想象一个正电荷晶格在流动的电子汤中游动。
Within covalent structures, differentiate ‘simple molecular’ (small discrete molecules, weak intermolecular forces, low melting points) from ‘giant covalent’ (network of atoms joined by covalent bonds, very high melting points – diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide). Graphite is a special case: layers of hexagonally arranged carbon, with delocalised electrons between layers that allow electrical conductivity – think ‘graph’ (to write) because it leaves a mark on paper.
在共价结构中，要区分 ‘simple molecular’（简单分子，由小的离散分子组成，分子间作用力弱，熔点低）和 ‘giant covalent’（巨型共价，由共价键连接成网络的原子结构，熔点非常高——如金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）。石墨是一个特例：碳原子以六边形排列成层，层间有离域电子，因而能导电——联想 ‘graph’（书写），因为它能在纸上留下痕迹。
Memory aid for properties: ‘Ionic – giant lattice, brittle, high mp, conducts when molten/aqueous; Covalent simple – small, low mp, does not conduct; Giant covalent – hard, very high mp; Metallic – malleable, high mp, conducts as solid.’ Drill the term ‘alloy’ – a mixture of metals (or metal with non-metal) that disrupts the regular lattice, making it harder and less malleable than the pure metal.
性质记忆辅助：离子晶体——巨型晶格，脆，高熔点，熔融态或水溶液可导电；简单共价——小分子，低熔点，不导电；巨型共价——坚硬，极高熔点；金属——有延展性，高熔点，固态可导电。反复练习 ‘alloy’（合金）一词——它是金属（或金属与非金属）的混合物，打乱了规则的晶格，从而比纯金属更硬、延展性更差。
3. States of Matter & Kinetic Theory | 物质状态与分子运动论
The three common states – solid, liquid, gas – are described by the arrangement and motion of particles. ‘Kinetic particle theory’ states that all matter consists of tiny particles in constant, random motion. The term ‘kinetic’ comes from Greek ‘kinētikos’, meaning putting in motion – think ‘cinema’ showing motion pictures. ‘Diffusion’ is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration because of random motion; ammonia and hydrogen chloride diffusion is a classic demonstration.
常见的三种状态——固态、液态、气态——通过粒子的排列和运动来描述。’Kinetic particle theory’（分子运动论）指出，所有物质都由不断做无规则运动的微小粒子组成。’Kinetic’（动力的）一词来自希腊语 ‘kinētikos’，意为使运动——联想到 ‘cinema’（电影院）播放动态影像。’Diffusion’（扩散）是粒子由于无规则运动从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动；氨气和氯化氢气体的扩散实验是经典的演示。
Changes of state come with precise vocabulary: ‘melting’ (solid → liquid at melting point), ‘freezing’ (reverse), ‘boiling/evaporation’ (liquid → gas; boiling occurs throughout the liquid at a specific temperature, evaporation only at surface at any temperature), ‘condensation’ (gas → liquid), ‘sublimation’ (solid → gas directly, e.g. iodine, carbon dioxide). ‘Volatility’ refers to how easily a liquid evaporates – high volatility means weak intermolecular forces.
状态变化有精确的词汇：’melting’（熔化，固体→液体，在熔点发生），’freezing’（凝固，相反过程），’boiling/evaporation’（沸腾/蒸发；沸腾在特定温度下在整个液体中发生，蒸发在任何温度下仅在表面发生），’condensation’（冷凝，气体→液体），’sublimation’（升华，固体直接变气体，如碘、二氧化碳）。’Volatility’（挥发性）指液体蒸发的难易程度——高挥发性意味着分子间作用力弱。
For gas behaviour, learn ‘pressure’ as force per unit area due to particle collisions; ‘absolute zero’ (0 K or –273 °C) where particles have minimum kinetic energy; ‘temperature’ as a measure of average kinetic energy. The Kelvin scale is key: T(K) = θ(°C) + 273. The term ‘ideal gas’ assumes no intermolecular forces and point-like particles – a useful approximation.
对于气体行为，要学习 ‘pressure’（压强）为单位面积上因粒子碰撞产生的力；’absolute zero’（绝对零度，0 K 或 –273 °C），在该温度下粒子动能最低；’temperature’（温度）是平均动能的量度。开尔文温标很重要：T(K) = θ(°C) + 273。’Ideal gas’（理想气体）假设不存在分子间作用力且粒子为点粒子——这是一个有用的近似。
4. Stoichiometry & The Mole | 化学计量与摩尔
The mole is the chemist’s counting unit, 6.022 × 10²³ particles – Avogadro’s constant. Think ‘mole’ like a very large ‘dozen’. The term ‘molar mass’ is the mass of one mole of a substance in grams, numerically equal to the relative formula mass. ‘Empirical formula’ is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound (e.g., CH₂O for glucose), while ‘molecular formula’ gives the actual number of atoms (C₆H₁₂O₆). Mnemonic: ‘Empirical is Elementary, Molecular is Multiplied.’
摩尔是化学家的计数单位，6.022 × 10²³ 个粒子——阿伏伽德罗常数。将 ‘mole’（摩尔）想象成一个非常大的 ‘打’（十二个）。’Molar mass’（摩尔质量）是一摩尔物质的质量（以克为单位），数值上等于相对式量。’Empirical formula’（最简式）是化合物中各原子最简整数比（例如葡萄糖的 CH₂O），而 ‘molecular formula’（分子式）给出原子的实际个数（C₆H₁₂O₆）。助记：’Empirical is Elementary，Molecular is Multiplied’（最简式是基本的，分子式是倍乘的）。
Concentration terms: ‘solute’ – substance dissolved; ‘solvent’ – liquid doing the dissolving; ‘solution’ – solute + solvent. ‘Concentration’ can be expressed in g/dm³ or mol/dm³. Remember: 1 dm³ = 1 litre = 1000 cm³. The formula n = m/M (moles = mass ÷ molar mass) and n = cV (moles = concentration × volume in dm³) are the golden equations. ‘Limiting reactant’ is the reagent that runs out first and determines the maximum amount of product – like the ingredient that limits how many sandwiches you can make.
浓度术语：’solute’（溶质）——被溶解的物质；’solvent’（溶剂）——进行溶解的液体；’solution’（溶液）——溶质 + 溶剂。’Concentration’（浓度）可以用 g/dm³ 或 mol/dm³ 表示。记住：1 dm³ = 1 升 = 1000 cm³。公式 n = m/M（摩尔数 = 质量 ÷ 摩尔质量）和 n = cV（摩尔数 = 浓度 × 体积，以 dm³ 为单位）是黄金方程。’Limiting reactant’（限量反应物）是最先用完、并决定产物最大量的试剂——就像限制你能做多少三明治的原料一样。
Percentage yield and percentage purity: ‘yield’ = (actual mass / theoretical mass) × 100%; ‘purity’ = (mass of pure substance / mass of impure sample) × 100%. The phrase ‘theoretical yield’ assumes complete conversion with no losses. Practice using these terms in calculations so they become second nature.
产率与纯度：’yield’（产率）=（实际质量 / 理论质量）× 100%；’purity’（纯度）=（纯物质质量 / 不纯样品质量）× 100%。’Theoretical yield’（理论产量）假设反应完全进行，没有损失。在计算中熟练运用这些术语，让它们成为本能。
5. Energetics & Thermochemistry | 能量学与热化学
Reactions either take in or give out energy. ‘Exothermic’ reactions release heat to the surroundings (temperature rises) – think ‘exit’ heat. ‘Endothermic’ reactions absorb heat from the surroundings (temperature drops) – think ‘enter’ heat. Bond breaking is endothermic; bond making is exothermic. ‘Enthalpy change (ΔH)’ is the heat change at constant pressure; ΔH negative = exothermic, ΔH positive = endothermic.
化学反应要么吸热，要么放热。’Exothermic’（放热）反应向环境释放热量（温度升高）——联想 ‘exit’（退出）热量。’Endothermic’（吸热）反应从环境吸收热量（温度降低）——联想 ‘enter’（进入）热量。断键吸热，成键放热。’Enthalpy change (ΔH)’（焓变）是恒压下的热量变化；ΔH 为负表示放热，ΔH 为正表示吸热。
Activation energy (Eₐ) is the minimum energy colliding particles need for a successful reaction. Use the analogy: you need a push to get over a hill – the push is Eₐ. Catalysts lower the activation energy by providing an alternative pathway – they are not used up. ‘Energy profile diagram’ shows enthalpy on the y-axis and reaction progress (time) on the x-axis; the hump is the activation energy.
活化能 (Eₐ) 是碰撞粒子发生有效反应所需的最低能量。打个比方：翻越一座山需要推一把——这个推力就是 Eₐ。催化剂通过提供另一条反应途径来降低活化能——催化剂本身不会被消耗。’Energy profile diagram’（能级图）以焓值为 y 轴，反应进程（时间）为 x 轴；凸起的部分是活化能。
Types of enthalpy changes you must recognise: ‘ΔH_combustion’ (heat released when one mole of substance is completely burned in oxygen), ‘ΔH_neutralisation’ (heat change when an acid and base react to form one mole of water), ‘ΔH_solution’ (heat change when one mole of solute dissolves in excess solvent). Drill the definitions with their standard conditions: 298 K (25 °C) and 1 atm (101 kPa).
你必须认出的焓变类型有：’ΔH_combustion’（燃烧焓，一摩尔物质在氧气中完全燃烧时释放的热量），’ΔH_neutralisation’（中和焓，酸与碱反应生成一摩尔水时的热量变化），’ΔH_solution’（溶解焓，一摩尔溶质溶于过量溶剂时的热量变化）。反复练习这些定义及其标准条件：298 K（25 °C）和 1 atm（101 kPa）。
6. Rates of Reaction | 反应速率
The ‘rate of reaction’ is the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time. It can be measured by volume of gas evolved, mass loss, colour change, or pH change. The ‘collision theory’ states that for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with the correct orientation and with energy greater than or equal to the activation energy. Hence, ‘effective/successful collisions’ yield products.
‘Rate of reaction’（反应速率）是单位时间内反应物或产物浓度的变化。它可以通过气体释放体积、质量损失、颜色变化或 pH 变化来测量。’Collision theory’（碰撞理论）指出，要发生反应，粒子必须以正确的取向碰撞，并且能量大于或等于活化能。因此，’effective/successful collisions’（有效/成功的碰撞）才能生成产物。
Factors affecting rate are easily remembered: concentration (more particles in the same volume → more frequent collisions), pressure (for gases, same effect as concentration), surface area (smaller pieces → greater exposed area for collisions), temperature (higher temp → particles move faster → more collisions with energy ≥ Eₐ). Catalysts provide an alternative pathway with lower Eₐ. Mnemonic: ‘Cats Play Surface Temperature’ (Concentration, Pressure, Surface area, Temperature).
影响反应速率的因素很容易记住：浓度（相同体积内粒子更多 → 碰撞更频繁），压强（对气体而言，效果与浓度相同），表面积（颗粒越小 → 反应接触面积越大），温度（温度越高 → 粒子运动越快 → 更多碰撞能量 ≥ Eₐ）。催化剂提供一条需较低 Eₐ 的替代路径。助记：’Cats Play Surface Temperature’（猫在玩表面温度）代表 Concentration、Pressure、Surface area、Temperature。
Interpreting graphs: a steeper slope means a faster rate. The graph levels off when the limiting reactant is used up. ‘Initial rate’ is the rate at time zero, often calculated from the tangent at the origin. Be able to describe experiments for investigating rates, e.g., marble chips and hydrochloric acid to measure CO₂ mass loss.
解读图表：斜率更陡意味着速率更快。当限量反应物耗尽时，曲线趋于平缓。’Initial rate’（初始速率）是时间为零时的速率，通常通过原点处的切线计算得出。要能够描述研究速率的实验，例如大理石碎片与盐酸反应，通过测量 CO₂ 质量损失来研究。
7. Reversible Reactions & Equilibrium | 可逆反应与平衡
Some reactions go both ways. The symbol ‘⇌’ (equilibrium arrows) signifies a reversible reaction. ‘Dynamic equilibrium’ is reached in a closed system when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction, and macroscopic properties (concentration, colour, pressure) remain constant. ‘Dynamic’ means the reactions are still happening – molecules are constantly moving between reactants and products.
有些反应可以双向进行。符号 ‘⇌’（平衡箭头）表示可逆反应。在封闭体系中，当正反应速率等于逆反应速率，且宏观性质（浓度、颜色、压强）保持不变时，即达到 ‘dynamic equilibrium’（动态平衡）。’Dynamic’（动态）指反应仍在进行——分子在反应物和产物之间不断转换。
Le Chatelier’s Principle: if a system at dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a change in conditions (concentration, temperature, pressure), the position of equilibrium shifts to oppose the change. Think of it as the system trying to ‘undo’ the disturbance. For temperature: increase favours the endothermic direction; decrease favours the exothermic direction. For pressure: increase favours the side with fewer gas moles; decrease favours the side with more moles. For concentration: adding reactant shifts equilibrium to the product side, and vice versa.
勒夏特列原理：如果动态平衡体系受到条件（浓度、温度、压强）改变的影响，平衡位置会移动以抵消这种改变。可以把这看作是体系试图 ‘撤销’ 干扰。温度：升高温度有利于吸热方向；降低温度有利于放热方向。压强：增大压强有利于气体摩尔数较少的一侧；减小压强有利于摩尔数较多的一侧。浓度：增加反应物会使平衡移向产物侧，反之亦然。
Key terms: ‘position of equilibrium’ refers to the relative amounts of reactants and products; shifting ‘to the right’ means more products, ‘to the left’ means more reactants. Catalysts do NOT affect the position of equilibrium – they only speed up the attainment of equilibrium by lowering Eₐ for both forward and backward reactions equally.
关键术语：’position of equilibrium’（平衡位置）指反应物和产物的相对量；向 ‘右’ 移动表示产物更多，向 ‘左’ 移动表示反应物更多。催化剂不会影响平衡位置——它们通过同等降低正逆反应的 Eₐ，只加速平衡的达成。
8. Acids, Bases & Salts | 酸、碱与盐
Acids and bases are defined in several ways. The simplest: an acid is a substance that donates H⁺ ions (proton donor), and a base is a substance that accepts H⁺ ions (proton acceptor). ‘Alkali’ is a soluble base that releases OH⁻ ions in water. The term ‘strong acid’ refers to complete dissociation in water (e.g., HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄), while ‘weak acid’ partially dissociates (e.g., ethanoic acid CH₃COOH). Strength is NOT concentration – you can have a dilute strong acid.
酸和碱有几种定义方式。最简单的：酸是能提供 H⁺ 离子的物质（质子给体），碱是能接受 H⁺ 离子的物质（质子受体）。’Alkali’（碱溶液）是可溶于水并释放 OH⁻ 离子的碱。’Strong acid’（强酸）指在水中完全电离（如 HCl、HNO₃、H₂SO₄），而 ‘weak acid’（弱酸）部分电离（如醋酸 CH₃COOH）。强度并不等同于浓度——你可以有稀的强酸。
The pH scale (0–14) measures acidity: pH < 7 acidic, pH 7 neutral, pH > 7 alkaline. The lower the pH, the higher the H⁺ concentration. ‘Neutralisation’ is the reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l). Titration is used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution using a standard solution. Terms: ‘burette’, ‘pipette’, ‘aliquot’, ‘titre’, ‘end point’, ‘indicator’ (e.g., phenolphthalein, methyl orange).
pH 标度（0–14）衡量酸碱程度：pH < 7 酸性，pH = 7 中性，pH > 7 碱性。pH 越低，H⁺ 浓度越高。’Neutralisation’（中和）是酸与碱反应生成盐和水：H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)。滴定法利用标准溶液来测定未知溶液的浓度。术语：’burette’（滴定管）、’pipette’（移液管）、’aliquot’（等分液）、’titre’（滴定体积）、’end point’（终点）、’indicator’（指示剂，如酚酞、甲基橙）。
Salts have a naming pattern based on the acid: hydrochloric acid → chloride; sulfuric acid → sulfate; nitric acid → nitrate. ‘Hydrated salt’ contains water of crystallisation (e.g., CuSO₄·5H₂O); ‘anhydrous salt’ has no water. ‘Precipitate’ is an insoluble solid formed when two solutions are mixed – precipitation is a rapid reaction useful for making insoluble salts.
盐的命名基于酸：盐酸 → 氯化物；硫酸 → 硫酸盐；硝酸 → 硝酸盐。’Hydrated salt’（水合盐）含有结晶水（如 CuSO₄·5H₂O）；’anhydrous salt’（无水盐）不含水。’Precipitate’（沉淀）是两种溶液混合时生成的不溶性固体——沉淀反应非常快速，适用于制备不溶性盐。
9. Redox & Electrochemistry Terms | 氧化还原与电化学术语
Redox is a blend of ‘reduction’ and ‘oxidation’. Oxidation was originally gain of oxygen, but now is defined as loss of electrons; reduction is gain of electrons. Mnemonic: ‘OIL RIG’ – Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain. ‘Oxidising agent’ (oxidant) causes oxidation by accepting electrons – it is itself reduced. ‘Reducing agent’ does the opposite. In a redox reaction, one species is oxidised and another reduced.
Redox 是 ‘reduction’（还原）和 ‘oxidation’（氧化）的合成词。氧化原本指得到氧，但现在定义为失去电子；还原是得到电子。助记：’OIL RIG’——Oxidation Is Loss，Reduction Is Gain（氧化为失，还原为得）。’Oxidising agent’（氧化剂）通过接受电子引起氧化——它自身被还原。’Reducing agent’（还原剂）则相反。在氧化还原反应中，一种物质被氧化，另一种被还原。
In terms of oxidation states: oxidation is an increase in oxidation number; reduction is a decrease. Key rules: free elements have oxidation number 0; oxygen in compounds is usually –2; hydrogen is +1; sum of oxidation numbers equals the overall charge. ‘Disproportionation’ is a reaction where the same element is both oxidised and reduced – think of it as ‘split personality’ redox.
在氧化数方面：氧化是氧化数升高；还原是氧化数降低。关键规则：游离态元素氧化数为 0；化合物中的氧通常为 –2；氢为 +1；氧化数之和等于总电荷。’Disproportionation’（歧化反应）是同一元素既被氧化又被还原的反应——可以把它看作 ‘分裂人格’ 的氧化还原。
Electrolysis splits compounds using electricity. An ‘electrolyte’ is the molten or aqueous ionic compound that conducts. The ‘anode’ is the positive electrode where oxidation occurs; the ‘cathode’ is the negative electrode where reduction occurs. Memory trick: ‘An Ox’ (Anode, Oxidation) and ‘Red Cat’ (Reduction, Cathode). ‘Inert electrodes’ (e.g., graphite, platinum) do not react; ‘active electrodes’ (e.g., copper in refining) can dissolve.
电解是利用电来分解化合物。’Electrolyte’（电解质）是可导电的熔融态或水溶液离子化合物。’Anode’（阳极）为正极，发生氧化反应；’Cathode’（阴极）为负极，发生还原反应。记忆窍门：’An Ox’（阳极，氧化）和 ‘Red Cat’（还原，阴极）。’Inert electrodes’（惰性电极，如石墨、铂）不参与反应；’Active electrodes’（活性电极，如铜精炼中的铜）可以溶解。
10. Introduction to Organic Chemistry | 有机化学入门
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds (except carbonates, CO₂, CO, etc.). A ‘homologous series’ is a family of organic compounds with the same general formula, functional group, and chemical properties, differing by CH₂ from one member to the next. ‘Functional group’ is an atom or group of atoms that determines the chemical reactions of a compound.
有机化学是研究含碳化合物（碳酸盐、CO₂、CO 等除外）的学科。’Homologous series’（同系列）是一族有机化合物，它们具有相同的通式、官能团和化学性质，相邻成员之间相差一个 CH₂ 单元。’Functional group’（官能团）是决定化合物化学反应的原子或原子团。
Common homologous series for Year 11: ‘alkanes’ (single C–C bonds, saturated hydrocarbons, general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂, functional group: none specific – just C–H and C–C bonds), ‘alkenes’ (contain C=C double bond, unsaturated, general formula CₙH₂ₙ, functional group: C=C). The term ‘saturated’ means no more hydrogen can be added; ‘unsaturated’ means the double bond can open up for addition reactions.
十一年级常见的同系列：’alkanes’（烷烃，只有 C–C 单键，饱和烃，通式 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂，官能团：无特定——仅有 C–H 和 C–C 键），’alkenes’（烯烃，含 C=C 双键，不饱和，通式 CₙH₂ₙ，官能团：C=C）。’Saturated’（饱和）意味着无法添加更多的氢；’unsaturated’（不饱和）意味着双键可以打开进行加成反应。
Reaction types: ‘addition’ (two molecules combine to form one, typical of alkenes – e.g., bromine water test: orange to colourless), ‘substitution’ (an atom/group is replaced, typical of alkanes in UV light – e.g., chlorine and methane), ‘combustion’ (complete: CO₂ + H₂O; incomplete: CO + H₂O or C + H₂O). The term ‘isomer’ refers to compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements (structural isomers) – for butane, the branched isomer is methylpropane.
反应类型：’addition’（加成反应，两分子结合成一分子，烯烃的典型反应——例如溴水测试：橙色变为无色），’substitution’（取代反应，一个原子/基团被替换，烷烃在紫外光下的典型反应——如氯与甲烷），’combustion’（完全燃烧：CO₂ + H₂O；不完全燃烧：CO + H₂O 或 C + H₂O）。’Isomer’（异构体）指分子式相同但结构排列不同的化合物（结构异构体）——对于丁烷，支链异构体是甲基丙烷。
Naming organic compounds follows IUPAC rules: prefix (substituents like methyl-, chloro-) + stem (number of carbon atoms: meth-, eth-, prop-, but-) + suffix (ane for alkanes, ene for alkenes, anol for alcohols, anoic acid for carboxylic acids). E.g., ‘ethanol’ (eth- = 2 carbons, anol = alcohol). Drill the first four prefixes.
有机化合物的命名遵循 IUPAC 规则：前缀（取代基，如甲基-、氯-）+ 词干（碳原子数：甲-、乙-、丙-、丁-）+ 后缀（烷烃用 -ane，烯烃用 -ene，醇用 -anol，羧酸用 -anoic acid）。例如，’ethanol’（乙醇，eth- = 2 个碳，anol = 醇）。熟练掌握前四个碳数前缀。
11. Analysis & Identification | 分析与鉴定词汇
Qualitative analysis tells you what is present. ‘Flame test’ identifies metal ions: Li⁺ red, Na⁺ yellow, K⁺ lilac, Ca²⁺ orange-red, Cu²⁺ blue-green. Think ‘Lucky Naughty Kids Cause Colour’. ‘Precipitate’ tests for cations using sodium hydroxide: most metal hydroxides are insoluble and have characteristic colours – Cu²⁺ blue, Fe²⁺ green, Fe³⁺ brown; Zn²⁺ and Al³⁺ form white precipitates that re-dissolve in excess NaOH (amphoteric). ‘Amphoteric’ means able to react as both acid and base.
定性分析告诉你存在什么物质。’Flame test’（焰色反应）鉴定金属阳离子：Li⁺ 红色，Na⁺ 黄色，K⁺ 紫丁香色，Ca²⁺ 砖红色，Cu²⁺ 蓝绿色。助记：’Lucky Naughty Kids Cause Colour’。使用氢氧化钠的 ‘precipitate’（沉淀）检测阳离子：大多数金属氢氧化物不溶于水，并具有特征颜色——Cu²⁺ 蓝色，Fe²⁺ 绿色，Fe³⁺ 棕色；Zn²⁺ 和 Al³⁺ 生成白色沉淀，且在过量 NaOH 中重新溶解（两性）。’Amphoteric’（两性）意味着既能作为酸又能作为碱反应。
Anion tests: carbonate (CO₃²⁻) – add acid, bubble through limewater, turns milky (CO₂); halides (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻) – add dilute nitric acid then silver nitrate: white (AgCl), cream (AgBr), yellow (AgI); sulfate (SO₄²⁻) – add dilute hydrochloric acid then barium chloride, white precipitate BaSO₄. Remember the order: acidify first to remove carbonates/sulfites that might give a false positive.
阴离子检测：碳酸根 (CO₃²⁻) ——加酸，气体通入石灰水，变浑浊 (CO₂)；卤离子 (Cl⁻、Br⁻、I⁻) ——先加稀硝酸，再加硝酸银：白色 (AgCl)、奶油色 (AgBr)、黄色 (AgI)；硫酸根 (SO₄²⁻) ——先加稀盐酸，再加氯化钡，白色沉淀 BaSO₄。记住顺序：先酸化，以除去可能造成干扰的碳酸根/亚硫酸根。
Chromatography terms: ‘stationary phase’ (paper or TLC plate), ‘mobile phase’ (solvent), ‘Rf value’ = distance moved by spot / distance moved by solvent front. An Rf value is characteristic for a substance under given conditions. ‘Locating agent’ (e.g., ninhydrin for amino acids) can visualise colourless spots.
色谱术语：’stationary phase’（固定相，纸或薄层板），’mobile phase’（流动相，溶剂），’Rf value’（比移值）= 斑点移动距离 / 溶剂前沿移动距离。在给定条件下，Rf 值是物质的特征常数。’Locating agent’（显色剂，如氨基酸用的茚三酮）可以使无色斑点显色。
12. General Terminology and Quick Hacks | 通用术语与快速技巧
Build a habit of deciphering words using Greek/Latin roots. For example: ‘mono-‘ = 1, ‘di
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