📚 OCR Year 12 Philosophy Glossary and Memory Guide | OCR 12年级哲学术语速记指南
This article provides a bilingual glossary of the essential philosophical terms covered in the OCR Year 12 Philosophy specification. Each term is explained in clear English and Chinese, grouped by topic, and structured to support quick recall. Use this guide to build a solid conceptual foundation as you prepare for exams and essays.
本文提供 OCR 12年级哲学考纲中核心术语的双语词汇表。每个术语均以清晰的英文和中文解释，按主题分组，并以便于速记的方式编排。使用本指南可在备考和写作时建立扎实的概念基础。
1. Logic and Argument | 逻辑与论证
Proposition: A statement that is either true or false, such as ‘All ravens are black’. It forms the basic unit of logical analysis.
命题：一个或真或假的陈述，例如“所有乌鸦都是黑的”，它是逻辑分析的基本单位。
Premise: A proposition offered as a reason to support a conclusion. An argument typically contains one or more premises.
前提：为支持结论而提出的命题。一个论证通常包含一个或多个前提。
Conclusion: The proposition that an argument attempts to establish on the basis of its premises.
结论：论证基于其前提试图确立的命题。
Deduction: A form of inference where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎：一种推理形式，若前提为真，则结论必然为真。例：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Induction: An inference where the premises provide some degree of support for the conclusion but do not guarantee it. Example: The sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore the sun will rise tomorrow.
归纳：一种推理，前提为结论提供一定程度的支持，但不保证结论必然为真。例：有史以来太阳每天都升起；因此明天太阳也会升起。
Validity: A property of deductive arguments. An argument is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises; it does not require the premises to be true.
有效性：演绎论证的一种性质。如果结论逻辑上从前提推出，论证就是有效的；不要求前提为真。
Soundness: A deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true.
可靠性：一个演绎论证如果有效且所有前提都为真，就是可靠的。
A priori: Knowledge justified independently of experience, e.g., ‘2 + 2 = 4’.
先验：不依赖于经验即可得到辩护的知识，例如“2 + 2 = 4”。
A posteriori: Knowledge justified by experience, e.g., ‘The cat is on the mat’.
后验：依赖于经验辩护的知识，例如“猫在垫子上”。
2. Epistemology: The Theory of Knowledge | 认识论：知识论
Knowledge: Traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB). A subject S knows that p if and only if p is true, S believes that p, and S is justified in believing that p.
知识：传统上定义为得到辩护的真信念（JTB）。主体 S 知道 p，当且仅当 p 为真，S 相信 p，并且 S 有理由相信 p。
Gettier case: A counterexample to the JTB definition, where a person has a justified true belief but still seems to lack knowledge (e.g., a clock that stopped exactly 24 hours earlier but is read at the right time by chance).
盖梯尔案例：JTB 定义的反例，一个人拥有得到辩护的真信念，却仍似缺乏知识（如一只恰好停在24小时前的钟，被偶然读对时间）。
Empiricism: The view that the primary source of knowledge is sensory experience. Key figures: Locke, Hume.
经验主义：认为知识的主要来源是感官经验的观点。代表人物：洛克、休谟。
Rationalism: The view that reason is the chief source of knowledge, and some concepts or truths are innate. Key figure: Descartes.
理性主义：认为理性是知识的主要来源，且某些概念或真理是天赋的观点。代表人物：笛卡尔。
Scepticism: The position that knowledge is either impossible or very limited. Global scepticism doubts all knowledge; local scepticism doubts knowledge in a specific domain.
怀疑主义：认为知识不可能或非常有限的立场。全局怀疑主义怀疑一切知识；局部怀疑主义怀疑特定领域的知识。
Sense-data: The immediate objects of perception, such as colours, sounds, and shapes, as distinct from physical objects themselves. Used in indirect realism.
感觉材料：知觉的直接对象，如颜色、声音和形状，区别于物理对象本身。用于间接实在论。
3. Metaphysics of Mind | 心灵形而上学
Dualism: The view that mind and body are distinct substances. Substance dualism (Descartes) holds that mental substance (non-physical) and physical substance interact.
二元论：认为心灵和身体是两种不同实体的观点。实体二元论（笛卡尔）主张心灵实体（非物理）与物理实体相互作用。
Physicalism: The thesis that everything is physical, including the mind. Mental states are either identical to brain states (type identity theory) or realise functional roles.
物理主义：认为一切事物都是物理的，包括心灵。心理状态要么等同于大脑状态（类型同一论），要么实现某种功能角色。
Qualia: The subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the painfulness of pain. Often used in arguments against physicalism.
感受质：意识经验的主观、质性的方面，如红色的红感或疼痛的痛感。常用于反对物理主义的论证。
Intentionality: The ‘aboutness’ of mental states; a thought can be about a unicorn even if no unicorns exist. Key feature of the mental highlighted by Brentano.
意向性：心理状态的“关于性”；一个思想可以关于独角兽，即使独角兽不存在。布伦塔诺强调的心灵关键特征。
Category mistake: Gilbert Ryle’s term for treating a concept as belonging to a different logical category than it actually does, e.g., treating ‘the mind’ as a ghostly entity when it is really a set of dispositions.
范畴错误：吉尔伯特·赖尔的术语，指将一个概念当作属于不同逻辑范畴来对待，例如把“心灵”当作幽灵般的实体，而它实际上是一组倾向。
Eliminative materialism: The radical view that our folk psychological concepts (belief, desire) are fundamentally false and will be replaced by mature neuroscience.
取消式唯物主义：一种激进的观点，认为我们的常识心理学概念（信念、欲望）根本上是错误的，将被成熟的神经科学取代。
4. Ethics: Normative Theories | 伦理学：规范性理论
Utilitarianism: The ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or utility. Classic proponents: Bentham, Mill.
功利主义：认为正确的行为是最大化总体幸福或效用的伦理学理论。经典倡导者：边沁、密尔。
Deontology: The ethical theory that the rightness of an action depends on its conformity to moral rules or duties, not solely on consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative is a key example.
义务论：认为行为对错取决于是否符合道德规则或义务，而非仅看后果的伦理学理论。康德的定言命令是关键实例。
Virtue ethics: An approach that emphasises the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences. It asks what a virtuous person would do. Key figure: Aristotle.
德性伦理学：强调道德主体的品格而非规则或后果的进路。它问有德之人会怎么做。关键人物：亚里士多德。
Categorical imperative: Kant’s supreme moral principle: act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.
定言命令：康德的最高道德原则：只按照你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的那个准则去行动。
Eudaimonia: Often translated as ‘flourishing’ or ‘well-being’; for Aristotle, the ultimate goal of human life, achieved by living virtuously in accordance with reason.
幸福（Eudaimonia）：常译为“繁荣”或“福祉”；对亚里士多德而言，它是人生的终极目标，通过按照理性有德性地生活而实现。
Moral absolutism: The view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong, regardless of context or consequences. Contrasts with relativism.
道德绝对主义：认为某些行为是绝对对或绝对错的，无论情境或后果如何。与相对主义相对。
5. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Theism: Belief in the existence of a God or gods who created and govern the universe, typically possessing omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence.
有神论：相信存在一个或多个创造并统治宇宙的神，通常具有全能、全知和全善的属性。
Ontological argument: An a priori argument for God’s existence based on the very concept of God. Anselm defined God as ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’.
本体论论证：一种基于上帝概念本身的先验论证。安瑟伦将上帝定义为“无以设想比之更伟大的东西”。
Cosmological argument: An a posteriori argument that argues from the existence of the universe to a first cause or necessary being (God). Aquinas’ Five Ways are examples.
宇宙论论证：一种后验论证，从宇宙的存在推出第一因或必然存在（上帝）。阿奎那的五路论证是典例。
Teleological argument: The argument from design, inferring an intelligent designer from the apparent order and purpose in nature. Paley’s watch analogy is a classic formulation.
目的论论证：设计论证，从自然界明显的秩序和目的推出一个智慧的设计者。佩利的钟表类比是经典表述。
Problem of evil: The challenge to theism posed by the existence of evil and suffering in a world supposedly created by an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God.
恶的问题：对有神论的挑战，源于在一个据说由全能、全知、全善的上帝创造的世界中存在恶与苦难。
Theodicy: An attempt to justify God’s goodness despite the presence of evil. Augustine’s theodicy appeals to free will and the Fall.
神义论：尽管存在恶，仍试图为上帝的善辩护的努力。奥古斯丁的神义论诉诸自由意志和堕落。
6. Ancient Philosophy: Plato & Aristotle | 古希腊哲学：柏拉图与亚里士多德
Form (Plato): The eternal, perfect, and unchanging archetype of a property or object, existing in a non-physical realm. Particular objects participate in Forms.
理型（柏拉图）：永恒、完美且不变的性质或对象的原型，存在于非物理领域。个别事物分有理型。
Allegory of the cave: Plato’s metaphor for the journey from ignorance (shadows on the wall) to knowledge (the sun representing the Form of the Good).
洞穴寓言：柏拉图的隐喻，描述从无知（墙上的影子）到知识（太阳代表善的理型）的旅程。
Four causes (Aristotle): Material cause (what it is made of), formal cause (its essence), efficient cause (the agent that brings it about), and final cause (its purpose or telos).
四因说（亚里士多德）：质料因（由什么构成）、形式因（本质）、动力因（促成它的动因）和目的因（目的或目的因）。
Prime mover: Aristotle’s concept of an eternal, perfect being that causes all motion and change without being moved itself; it thinks about thinking.
第一推动者：亚里士多德的概念，指永恒、完美的存在，它引起一切运动和变化而不被推动；它思考思想本身。
Virtue as the mean: For Aristotle, moral virtue is a disposition to choose the intermediate between excess and deficiency relative to us, determined by reason.
德性即中道：对亚里士多德而言，道德德性是一种选择相对于我们而言过度与不足之间的居中点的倾向，由理性确定。
7. Key Philosophers & Rapid Reference | 核心哲学家速查
| Philosopher (English) | 哲学家 (中文) | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| René Descartes | 勒内·笛卡尔 | Cogito ergo sum; substance dualism; rationalism; sceptical method (Meditations). |
| David Hume | 大卫·休谟 | Empiricism; problem of induction; bundle theory of self; critique of miracles. |
| Immanuel Kant | 伊曼努尔·康德 | Categorical imperative; synthetic a priori; transcendental idealism; autonomy. |
| John Stuart Mill | 约翰·斯图亚特·密尔 | Utilitarianism; harm principle; higher and lower pleasures; On Liberty. |
| Aristotle | 亚里士多德 | Virtue ethics; four causes; prime mover; eudaimonia; logic (syllogism). |
| Plato | 柏拉图 | Theory of Forms; allegory of the cave; philosopher-king; tripartite soul. |
This table links the English names with Chinese names and a reminder of each thinker’s core contribution, aiding bilingual memory.
本表将英文名、中文名和每位思想家核心贡献的提示联系起来，辅助双语记忆。
8. Common Fallacies | 常见谬误
Ad hominem: Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. Example: ‘You can’t trust her view on climate change because she’s not a scientist.’
人身攻击：攻击提出论证的人，而不是论证本身。例：“你不能相信她对气候变化的看法，因为她不是科学家。”
Begging the question: Assuming the truth of the conclusion in the premises, creating a circular argument. Example: ‘The Bible is true because God wrote it, and we know God exists because the Bible says so.’
窃取论题：在前提中假定结论为真，构成循环论证。例：“圣经是真实的，因为它是上帝写的，而我们知道上帝存在是因为圣经这么说。”
False dilemma: Presenting only two options when more are available. Example: ‘Either you support this war or you are unpatriotic.’
假两难：只呈现两个选项，而实际上还有更多选择。例：“要么你支持这场战争，要么你不爱国。”
Slippery slope: Arguing that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in some significant (usually negative) effect.
滑坡谬误：论证一个相对微小的第一步将不可避免地导致一系列相关事件，最终产生重大（通常是负面）的影响。
Straw man: Misrepresenting an opponent’s position to make it easier to attack. Example: ‘Feminists want to ban all forms of chivalry and make men inferior.’
稻草人：歪曲对方的立场，使其更容易被攻击。例：“女权主义者想要禁止一切绅士风度，让男性低人一等。”
9. Thought Experiments & Key Arguments | 思想实验与关键论证
The Ship of Theseus: As planks are replaced over time, is it still the same ship? Raises questions about identity over time and the nature of objects.
忒修斯之船：随着时间推移，木板被更换，它还是同一艘船吗？它引发关于历时同一性和物体本性的问题。
Mary’s room (Frank Jackson): Mary is a brilliant scientist who has never seen colour but knows all physical facts about colour. If she learns something new when she sees red for the first time, physicalism is false. This is used to argue for qualia.
玛丽的房间（弗兰克·杰克逊）：玛丽是一位从未见过颜色但知道所有关于颜色的物理事实的杰出科学家。如果她第一次看到红色时学到了新东西，物理主义就是错的。这被用来论证感受质的存在。
The trolley problem: A moral dilemma contrasting killing one to save five by pulling a switch versus pushing a large man. It tests intuitions about utilitarianism and deontology.
电车难题：一个道德困境，对比扳动道岔牺牲一人救五人，与推下一个大块头男子。它检验关于功利主义和义务论的直觉。
Brain in a vat: A sceptical scenario in which a disembodied brain is fed experiences indistinguishable from reality; used to challenge the possibility of knowledge of the external world.
缸中之脑：一个怀疑论场景，一个脱离身体的大脑被输入与真实无异的体验；用于挑战外部世界知识的可能性。
10. Crucial Distinctions and Contrasts | 核心区分与对比
Realism vs Anti-realism: In many domains, realism asserts that X exists mind-independently; anti-realism denies this. Example: moral realism vs moral anti-realism.
实在论与反实在论：在许多领域中，实在论断言 X 独立于心灵存在；反实在论否认这一点。例如道德实在论与道德反实在论。
Analytic vs Synthetic: Analytic truths are true by virtue of meaning alone (e.g., ‘All bachelors are unmarried’); synthetic truths depend on how the world is (e.g., ‘Snow is white’).
分析命题与综合命题：分析真理仅凭意义为真（如“所有单身汉都未婚”）；综合真理取决于世界事实（如“雪是白的”）。
Necessary vs Contingent: A necessary truth could not have been false in any possible world (e.g., 2+2=4); a contingent truth is true but could have been false (e.g., ‘Paris is the capital of France’).
必然真理与偶然真理：必然真理在任何可能世界都不可能为假（如 2+2=4）；偶然真理虽为真，却可能为假（如“巴黎是法国的首都”）。
Objective vs Subjective: Objective facts are independent of any individual’s perspective; subjective facts depend on a subject’s experience or opinion. Often at play in discussions of taste and morality.
客观与主观：客观事实独立于任何个体的视角；主观事实依赖于主体的体验或意见。常在品味和道德的讨论中涉及。
First-order vs Second-order desires: A first-order desire is a want for something (e.g., to smoke); a second-order desire is a desire about a desire (e.g., wanting not to want to smoke). Harry Frankfurt’s distinction is central to his account of free will and personhood.
一阶欲望与二阶欲望：一阶欲望是对某物的欲求（如想吸烟）；二阶欲望是关于欲望的欲望（如希望自己不想吸烟）。哈里·法兰克福的这一区分是他自由意志与人格理论的核心。
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