📚 Year 12 AQA Engineering: Key Terminology Quick Reference Guide | AQA工程术语速记指南
Mastering the language of engineering is essential for Year 12 students following the AQA specification. This quick reference guide breaks down the most important terms you will encounter across materials, mechanics, electronics, systems, design, mathematics, testing and sustainability. Each term is explained in clear English and paired with an accurate Chinese translation, helping you build a bilingual technical vocabulary and deepen your understanding of core concepts.
对于学习AQA工程课程的12年级学生来说，掌握工程语言至关重要。这份速记指南分解了你在材料、力学、电子、系统、设计、数学、测试和可持续发展等模块中会遇到的最重要术语。每个术语都用清晰的英文解释，并配有准确的中文翻译，帮助你建立双语技术词汇，加深对核心概念的理解。
1. Materials and Properties | 材料与性能
Density (ρ) is a measure of mass per unit volume. It determines how compact the atoms are within a material and is usually expressed in kg/m3.
密度 (ρ) 是单位体积的质量，它决定了材料内部原子的密集程度，通常以kg/m3表示。
Young’s Modulus (E) describes the stiffness of a material. It is the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic region and is found from the gradient of a stress-strain graph.
杨氏模量 (E) 描述材料的刚度。它是弹性区域内应力与应变之比，可以通过应力-应变图的斜率求得。
E = σ / ε
Yield Strength is the stress at which a material starts to deform plastically. Beyond this point, the material will not return to its original shape when the load is removed.
屈服强度 是材料开始发生塑性变形的应力。超过此点后，卸除载荷时材料将无法恢复原状。
Tensile Strength (UTS) is the maximum stress a material can withstand while being stretched before it fails. It is the highest point on the stress-strain curve.
抗拉强度 (UTS) 是材料在被拉伸破坏前所能承受的最大应力，它是应力-应变曲线上的最高点。
Ductility refers to the ability of a material to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, often measured by percentage elongation.
延展性 指材料在断裂前能发生显著塑性变形的能力，通常用延伸率来衡量。
Hardness is the resistance of a material to surface indentation or scratching. Common tests include Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell.
硬度 是材料抵抗表面压痕或划伤的能力，常用测试方法有布氏、维氏和洛氏硬度试验。
Toughness indicates the amount of energy a material can absorb before fracturing. It is represented by the area under the stress-strain curve.
韧性 表示材料在断裂前能吸收的能量大小，它由应力-应变曲线下的面积代表。
Fatigue Limit is the stress level below which a material can endure an infinite number of cyclic loadings without failure.
疲劳极限 是材料在循环载荷下能承受无限次应力循环而不断裂的应力水平。
2. Manufacturing Processes | 制造工艺
Casting involves pouring molten metal into a mould cavity where it solidifies into the desired shape, suitable for complex geometries.
铸造 是将熔融金属浇注到模腔中，使其在其中凝固成所需形状的工艺，适用于复杂几何体。
Forging is the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces, often at high temperature, to improve grain structure and strength.
锻造 是利用局部压缩力使金属成形的工艺，通常在高温下进行，以改善晶粒组织并提高强度。
Machining removes material from a workpiece using cutting tools to achieve precise dimensions. Common operations include turning, milling and drilling.
机械加工 利用切削刀具从工件上去除材料，以获得精确尺寸。常见操作包括车削、铣削和钻削。
Welding joins two metal parts by melting the base materials and adding a filler, forming a strong metallurgical bond.
焊接 通过熔化母材并添加填充材料来连接两个金属件，形成牢固的冶金结合。
Brazing uses a filler metal with a lower melting point than the workpieces, which flows into the joint by capillary action without melting the base metals.
钎焊 使用熔点低于工件的填充金属，通过毛细作用流入接缝，而不熔化母材。
Injection Moulding forces molten polymer into a mould under high pressure, widely used for mass-producing plastic components.
注射成型 在高压下将熔融聚合物注入模具，广泛用于塑料部件的大规模生产。
Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) builds objects layer by layer from a digital model, enabling rapid prototyping and complex internal structures.
增材制造 (3D打印) 根据数字模型逐层构建物体，可实现快速原型制造和复杂的内部结构。
Forming deforms a metal workpiece plastically without removing material, for example bending, rolling or deep drawing.
成形 在不移除材料的情况下使金属工件发生塑性变形，例如弯曲、轧制或深拉深。
3. Mechanics and Structures | 力学与结构
Stress (σ) is the internal force per unit area within a material, calculated as σ = F / A and measured in pascals (Pa).
应力 (σ) 是材料内部单位面积上的内力，计算公式为 σ = F / A，单位为帕斯卡 (Pa)。
Strain (ε) is the deformation per unit length, defined as ε = ΔL / L₀, and has no units.
应变 (ε) 是单位长度的变形量，定义为 ε = ΔL / L₀，无量纲。
Hooke’s Law states that stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit, expressed as σ = E ε.
胡克定律 指出在弹性极限内应力与应变成正比，表达式为 σ = E ε。
Moment (M) is the turning effect of a force about a pivot, given by M = F × d, where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot.
力矩 (M) 是力对支点的转动效应，公式为 M = F × d，其中 d 是从支点到力作用线的垂直距离。
Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force and resultant moment acting on a body are both zero, satisfying ΣF = 0 and ΣM = 0.
平衡 指作用在物体上的合力和合力矩均为零的状态，满足 ΣF = 0 与 ΣM = 0。
Factor of Safety (FoS) is the ratio of the material’s failure stress to the allowable working stress, providing a margin of safety against unexpected loads.
安全系数 (FoS) 是材料破坏应力与许用工作应力之比，为应对意外载荷提供安全裕度。
Shear Force is the force acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a beam, causing one part to slide relative to another.
剪力 是垂直于梁纵轴作用的力，会导致一部分相对于另一部分产生滑移。
Bending Moment is the internal moment that causes a beam to bend. It varies along the beam and is critical for structural design.
弯矩 是使梁产生弯曲的内部力矩，它沿梁长度变化，对结构设计至关重要。
4. Electronics and Circuits | 电子与电路
Voltage (V) is the electric potential difference between two points, measured in volts. It drives current around a circuit.
电压 (V) 是两点之间的电位差，以伏特为单位，它驱动电流在电路中流动。
Current (I) is the rate of flow of electric charge, measured in amperes (A). Conventional current flows from positive to negative.
电流 (I) 是电荷流动的速率，单位为安培 (A)。常规电流方向是由正极流向负极。
Resistance (R) opposes the flow of current, measured in ohms (Ω). It depends on material, length, cross-sectional area and temperature.
电阻 (R) 阻碍电流的流动，单位为欧姆 (Ω)。其大小取决于材料、长度、截面积和温度。
Ohm’s Law gives the relationship V = I × R for a metallic conductor at constant temperature.
欧姆定律 给出在恒温下金属导体的关系式 V = I × R。
Power (P) in an electrical circuit is the rate of energy transfer, calculated as P = V × I, also expressible as P = I2 R.
电功率 (P) 是电路中能量传输的速率，计算公式为 P = V × I，也可表示为 P = I2 R。
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of currents leaving it.
基尔霍夫电流定律 (KCL) 表明流入一个节点的电流之和等于流出该节点的电流之和。
Series Circuit has only one path for current. The same current flows through all components, and the total resistance is the sum of individual resistances: Rtotal = R₁ + R₂ + …
串联电路 只有一条电流通路。所有元件流过相同电流，总电阻为各电阻之和：R总 = R₁ + R₂ + …
Parallel Circuit has multiple paths. The voltage across each branch is the same, and the total resistance is found using 1/Rtotal = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
并联电路 有多条通路。各支路两端电压相同，总电阻由 1/R总 = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + … 求出。
5. Systems and Control | 系统与控制
Open-loop System operates without feedback; the output has no effect on the control action. A simple timer-based heating system is an example.
开环系统 在没有反馈的情况下运行；输出对控制动作没有影响。一个基于定时器的简单加热系统就是一个例子。
Closed-loop System uses feedback to compare the actual output with the desired setpoint, automatically adjusting the input to reduce errors.
闭环系统 利用反馈将实际输出与期望设定值进行比较，自动调整输入以减少误差。
Feedback is the process of returning a portion of the output signal back to the input, either negative (stabilising) or positive (amplifying).
反馈 是将一部分输出信号返回到输入端的过程，可以是负反馈（稳定作用）或正反馈（放大作用）。
Sensor converts a physical quantity such as temperature, pressure or light into an electrical signal for monitoring or control.
传感器 将温度、压力或光等物理量转换为电信号，用于监测或控制。
Actuator takes an electrical signal and converts it into physical motion, for example a motor, solenoid or hydraulic cylinder.
执行器 接收电信号并将其转化为物理运动，例如电动机、螺线管或液压缸。
Microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit that executes programmed instructions, reading sensor inputs and driving actuators in embedded systems.
微控制器 是一种紧凑的集成电路，执行程序指令，在嵌入式系统中读取传感器输入并驱动执行器。
Transfer Function mathematically describes the input-output relationship of a system, often expressed in the Laplace domain.
传递函数 用数学方式描述系统的输入-输出关系，通常用拉普拉斯域表示。
6. Design Process and Communication | 设计流程与交流
Design Specification is a detailed document listing the functional requirements, dimensions, materials, performance targets and constraints of a product.
设计规格书 是一份详细文件，列出产品的功能要求、尺寸、材料、性能目标和约束条件。
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) uses software to create precise 2D or 3D models, allowing visualisation, simulation and modification before production.
CAD (计算机辅助设计) 使用软件创建精确的二维或三维模型，可在生产前进行可视化、仿真和修改。
FEA (Finite Element Analysis) is a numerical method used in CAD to predict how a product reacts to real-world forces, vibration, heat and fluid flow.
FEA (有限元分析) 是CAD中使用的一种数值方法，用于预测产品在受力、振动、热和流体流动等真实条件下的反应。
Isometric Drawing is a 3D pictorial representation where the three axes are equally inclined at 120° to each other, preserving proportions without perspective.
等轴测图 是一种三维图示，三个坐标轴相互夹角均为120°，不需要透视即可保持比例。
Dimensioning adds linear, angular and radial measurements to a drawing, following standards to ensure clarity and unambiguous manufacturing instructions.
尺寸标注 在图纸上添加线型、角度和径向尺寸，遵循标准以确保清晰明确的制造指令。
Bill of Materials (BOM) lists all components, parts and raw materials needed to manufacture a product, including quantities and references.
物料清单 (BOM) 列出制造产品所需的所有组件、零件和原材料，包括数量和参考编号。
Prototyping involves creating an early sample or model to test a concept or process, helping to identify design flaws before mass production.
原型制作 包括制作早期样本或模型以测试概念或流程，帮助在大规模生产前发现设计缺陷。
7. Engineering Mathematics | 工程数学
Scalar is a physical quantity that has only magnitude, such as mass, temperature or speed.
标量 是只有大小的物理量，如质量、温度或速率。
Vector has both magnitude and direction, for example force, velocity or displacement, and can be resolved into perpendicular components.
矢量 既有大小又有方向，如力、速度或位移，可分解为垂直分量。
Resultant Force is the single force that produces the same effect on a body as all the individual forces acting together, found by vector addition.
合力 是能产生与所有单独力共同作用相同效果的单个力，通过矢量加法求得。
Trigonometric Functions sine (sin), cosine (cos) and tangent (tan) relate angles to side ratios in right-angled triangles, heavily used in force resolution and structural analysis.
三角函数 正弦(sin)、余弦(cos)和正切(tan)将直角三角形中的角度与边长比相关联，广泛用于力的分解和结构分析。
sin θ = opposite / hypotenuse, cos θ = adjacent / hypotenuse, tan θ = opposite / adjacent
Area and Volume calculations are fundamental for determining cross-sectional properties, material quantities and fluid capacities. Centroid and second moment of area are vital in beam design.
面积与体积 计算对于确定截面特性、材料用量和流体容量至关重要。形心和截面二次矩在梁设计中极为关键。
Centre of Gravity is the point through which the entire weight of a body appears to act. It is essential for lifting and stability analysis.
重心 是整个物体的重量看似集中作用的点，对于吊装和稳定性分析至关重要。
8. Testing and Quality Control | 测试与质量控制
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) evaluates material properties or defects without damaging the component. Examples include ultrasonic, radiographic and dye penetrant inspection.
无损检测 (NDT) 在不损伤部件的情况下评估材料特性或缺陷，例如超声波检测、射线照相和渗透检测。
Destructive Testing involves physically breaking or deforming a sample to measure properties like tensile strength, impact resistance or hardness, after which the sample is no longer usable.
破坏性测试 通过使样品物理断裂或变形来测量抗拉强度、冲击韧性或硬度等性能，之后样品将无法再使用。
Tensile Test measures how a material behaves under a stretching load, providing data for stress-strain curves, Young’s modulus, yield point and UTS.
拉伸试验 测量材料在拉伸载荷下的行为，提供应力-应变曲线、杨氏模量、屈服点和抗拉强度等数据。
Hardness Test quantifies resistance to indentation. The Brinell test uses a hardened steel ball; the Vickers test uses a diamond pyramid.
硬度测试 量化抗压痕能力。布氏硬度试验使用硬化钢球；维氏硬度试验使用金刚石正四棱锥压头。
Quality Assurance (QA) focuses on process-driven methods to prevent defects, whereas Quality Control (QC) involves inspecting products to detect defects after production.
质量保证 (QA) 注重过程驱动的方法以预防缺陷，而质量控制 (QC) 则涉及在产品完成后检查缺陷。
Tolerance is the permissible limit of variation in a physical dimension or measured value, ensuring parts fit together correctly in assembly.
公差 是物理尺寸或测量值的允许变动范围，确保零件在装配中能正确配合。
9. Sustainability and the Environment | 可持续性与环境
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analyses the environmental impact of a product from raw material extraction through manufacturing, use and disposal.
生命周期评估 (LCA) 分析产品从原材料提取、制造、使用到废弃处理各阶段的环境影响。
Renewable Energy comes from sources that are naturally replenished, such as solar, wind, tidal and geothermal, reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
可再生能源 来自太阳能、风能、潮汐能和地热能等自然补充的资源，可减少对化石燃料的依赖。
Embodied Energy is the total energy required to extract, process, manufacture and deliver a material, an important metric in sustainable material selection.
蕴含能 是提取、加工、制造和运输一种材料所需的总能量，是可持续材料选择中的重要指标。
Carbon Footprint measures the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by a product, service or organisation, expressed in CO2 equivalents.
碳足迹 衡量一个产品、服务或组织直接和间接产生的温室气体排放总量，以二氧化碳当量表示。
Circular Economy aims to keep resources in use for as long as possible, extracting maximum value and then recovering and regenerating materials at end of life.
循环经济 旨在尽可能延长资源的使用时间，最大限度地提取价值，并在产品生命周期结束时回收和再生材料。
End-of-Life Design considers disassembly, recycling and material recoverability during the design phase, reducing landfill and enabling a circular approach.
生命周期末端设计 在设计阶段就考虑拆解、回收和材料可回收性，从而减少垃圾填埋并实现循环利用。
10. Health and Safety | 健康与安全
Risk Assessment is the process of identifying hazards, evaluating the likelihood and severity of harm, and implementing control measures to reduce risk to an acceptable level.
风险评估 是识别危险源、评估伤害发生的可能性和严重程度，并实施控制措施以将风险降至可接受水平的过程。
Hazard is anything with the potential to cause harm, such as moving machinery, hazardous substances or high noise levels.
危险源 是任何可能造成伤害的事物，例如运动机械、有害物质或高噪音水平。
COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) requires employers to control exposure to hazardous substances, including chemicals, fumes and dust.
COSHH (有害健康物质控制) 要求雇主控制员工接触有害物质，包括化学品、烟雾和粉尘。
PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) includes helmets, gloves, eye protection and safety footwear, acting as the last line of defence when hazards cannot be eliminated.
个人防护装备 (PPE) 包括安全帽、手套、护目镜和防护鞋，是在无法消除危险时的最后一道防线。
Manual Handling covers any activity requiring the use of force to lift, lower, push or pull a load. Proper techniques prevent musculoskeletal injuries.
人工搬运 涉及任何需要用力的举起、放下、推拉负荷的活动，正确的操作技巧可预防肌肉骨骼损伤。
Regulations such as the Health and Safety at Work Act provide a legal framework to ensure workplaces meet minimum safety standards, protecting both employees and the public.
法规 如《工作健康与安全法》提供了法律框架，确保工作场所满足最低安全标准，保护员工和公众。
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