📚 Year 12 AQA Philosophy: Key Terms Memorisation Guide | AQA哲学关键术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary of AQA Year 12 Philosophy is essential for precise argumentation and high marks. This guide breaks down the core epistemology and moral philosophy terms into bite-sized, paired English‑Chinese explanations, helping you build confidence and recall quickly under exam conditions.
掌握AQA 12年级哲学术语是精准论证和获取高分的关键。本指南将认识论和道德哲学的核心术语拆分为简明扼要的中英对照解释，帮助你在考试中快速建立信心并高效回忆。
1. Foundational Epistemology Terms | 认识论基础术语
A priori knowledge: Knowledge that is justified independently of sense experience, relying solely on reason. Examples include ‘2 + 2 = 4’ and ‘all bachelors are unmarried’.
先验知识：其确证独立于感官经验、完全依赖理性的知识，例如 ‘2 + 2 = 4’ 以及 ‘所有单身汉都未婚’。
A posteriori knowledge: Knowledge that depends on empirical justification through sensory observation or experiment. ‘The cat is on the mat’ is known a posteriori.
后验知识：需通过感官观察或实验的经验性确证的知识，如 ‘猫在垫子上’ 是后验的。
Propositional knowledge (knowledge-that): Knowledge that something is the case, expressed in declarative sentences. It is the standard form analysed in epistemology.
命题知识（知道-that）：知道某事是如此这般，以陈述句表达，是认识论分析的标准形式。
Ability knowledge (knowledge-how): Knowing how to perform a skill, such as riding a bike. Ryle distinguished this from propositional knowledge.
能力知识（知道-how）：知道如何执行某种技能，如骑自行车。赖尔将其与命题知识区分开来。
Acquaintance knowledge (knowledge-of): Knowledge by direct familiarity with a person, place, or object. Russell argued this is foundational to understanding.
亲知知识（知道-of）：通过直接接触某人、某地或某物而获得的认知。罗素主张此为理解之基础。
Necessary truth: A proposition that could not have been false in any possible world, e.g., ‘triangles have three sides’.
必然真理：在所有可能世界均不可能为假的命题，例如 ‘三角形有三条边’。
Contingent truth: A truth that holds in the actual world but could have been otherwise, e.g., ‘London is the capital of the UK’.
偶然真理：在现实世界为真但可能为假的真理，如 ‘伦敦是英国的首都’。
Analytic statement: A statement true purely by virtue of the meaning of its words, e.g., ‘all sisters are female’. Its denial leads to contradiction.
分析陈述：纯粹因词语意义而真的陈述，如 ‘所有姐妹都是女性’，否定它会自相矛盾。
Synthetic statement: A statement whose truth value depends on how the world is, needing empirical or world‑related verification, e.g., ‘snow is white’.
综合陈述：其真值取决于世界实际状况，需经验或世界的检验，如 ‘雪是白的’。
2. Definitions of Knowledge | 知识的定义
Tripartite definition (JTB): Knowledge as justified true belief. A subject S knows that P iff P is true, S believes P, and S’s belief is justified.
三元定义（JTB）：知识为确证的真信念。主体S知道P，当且仅当P为真，S相信P，且S的信念得到确证。
Gettier case: A scenario where justified true belief occurs accidentally, thus failing to be knowledge. It shows the insufficiency of JTB.
盖提尔案例：确证的真信念偶然成真却并非知识的情形，表明JTB的不充分性。
No false lemmas (JTB+N): A response to Gettier requiring that the justification does not rest on any false intermediate belief (lemma).
无假前提（JTB+N）：对盖提尔的回应，要求确证不依赖任何假的中介信念（前提）。
Reliabilism: Knowledge is true belief produced by a reliable cognitive process, e.g., perception, memory. The process must track truth reliably.
可靠主义：知识是由可靠的认知过程产生的真信念，例如感知、记忆，过程需稳定导向真理。
Virtue epistemology: Knowledge arises from the exercise of intellectual virtues, such as open‑mindedness and intellectual courage. The agent’s character matters centrally.
美德认识论：知识源于智识美德的运用，如开放心态和智识勇气，认知者的品格居于核心。
Infallibilism: The strict view that knowledge requires absolute certainty with no possibility of error. It sets a very high bar for knowing.
无误论：要求知识必须绝对确定、不容任何出错可能的严格观点，认识标准极高。
3. Justification and Truth | 确证与真理
Foundationalism: The view that justification rests on a set of basic, self‑justifying beliefs that do not require further support, stopping the regress.
基础主义：确证建立在无需进一步支持的基本自明信念之上，从而终止无限回溯。
Coherentism: Beliefs are justified by their mutual coherence within a web of beliefs, like strands reinforcing each other. No belief is immune to revision.
融贯论：信念因其在信念网中的相互融贯而得到确证，如同相互支撑的线缕，无信念可免于修正。
Infinitism: The claim that the chain of justification can be infinite and need not terminate, provided the subject can keep answering ‘why’ questions.
无限主义：主张确证链条可以无限延伸且不必终止，只要主体能持续回答 ‘为何’。
Correspondence theory of truth: A proposition is true if it corresponds to a fact or state of affairs in the world. ‘Snow is white’ is true iff snow is white.
符合论真理观：命题若符合世界中的事实或事态即为真，’雪是白的’ 为真当且仅当雪是白的。
Coherence theory of truth: A proposition is true if it coheres with a system of accepted propositions. Truth is a holistic property.
融贯论真理观：命题若与已接受的命题系统融贯即为真，真理是一种整体属性。
Pragmatic theory of truth: Truth is what works in practice or what is useful to believe. Peirce and James associated truth with successful action.
实用主义真理观：真理是在实践中有效或有用的信念，皮尔士与詹姆斯将真理与成功行动相联系。
4. Core Concepts in Moral Philosophy | 道德哲学核心概念
Moral realism: The meta‑ethical view that moral properties exist mind‑independently and moral statements can be objectively true or false.
道德实在论：元伦理立场，认为道德属性独立于心灵存在，道德陈述可客观地为真或假。
Moral anti‑realism: Denies mind‑independent moral facts. Variants include error theory, emotivism, and prescriptivism.
道德反实在论：否认存在独立于心灵的道德事实，包括错论、情绪主义和规定主义等类型。
Cognitivism: The view that moral judgments express beliefs that are truth‑apt (capable of being true or false). Moral realists are cognitivist.
认知主义：道德判断表达真值承载的信念（可真可假），道德实在论者持此立场。
Non‑cognitivism: Holds that moral utterances do not express truth‑apt beliefs but rather emotions, commands or prescriptions.
非认知主义：认为道德话语不表达可真可假的信念，而表达情感、命令或规定。
Moral naturalism: The meta‑ethical view that moral properties are natural properties identifiable through empirical investigation, e.g., pleasure.
道德自然主义：元伦理观点，道德属性可还原为可通过经验探究的自然属性，如快乐。
Moral non‑naturalism: Claims that moral properties are sui generis and not reducible to natural facts. Moore argued ‘good’ is a simple, non‑natural quality.
道德非自然主义：主张道德属性是自成一类的，不可还原为自然事实。摩尔认为’善’是简单的非自然性质。
Error theory: Cognitivist and anti‑realist; moral judgments aim at truth but systematically fail because there are no moral properties. Mackie’s view.
错误理论：认知主义而反实在论；道德判断旨在求真却系统性错误，因不存在道德属性，麦凯主张此说。
5. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范化理学理论
Utilitarianism: The theory that right action maximises overall happiness or pleasure. Bentham’s quantitative hedonism and Mill’s qualitative approach are key variants.
功利主义：认为正当行为就是最大化总体幸福或快乐的理论，边沁的量性快乐主义与密尔的质性进路为关键变体。
Act utilitarianism: Each individual action should be judged by the principle of utility directly, aiming to produce the greatest good in each situation.
行为功利主义：每项行为直接依据功利原则判断，力求在每种情境下产生最大善。
Rule utilitarianism: Actions are right if they conform to a rule that, if generally followed, maximises utility. It addresses justice concerns.
规则功利主义：行为若符合某套规则即为正当，该规则若被普遍遵循可最大化功利，回应了正义难题。
Deontology (Kantian ethics): Morality is based on duty and the categorical imperative. Actions must be universalisable and treat humanity never merely as a means.
义务论（康德伦理学）：道德基于义务与定言命令，行为须可普遍化且永远把人当作目的而不仅当作手段。
Hypothetical imperative: A command of reason conditional on a particular desire, e.g., ‘If you want to stay healthy, exercise.’
假言命令：取决某一特定欲望的理性命令，如 ‘如果你想保持健康，就去锻炼’。
Categorical imperative: An unconditional moral obligation binding on all rational agents, irrespective of desires. Kant’s supreme moral principle.
定言命令：对所有理性主体无条件约束的道德义务，无关欲望，是康德的最高道德原则。
Virtue ethics: Focuses on the development of virtuous character traits (e.g., courage, honesty) rather than rules or consequences. Inspired by Aristotle.
美德伦理学：关注美德品质（如勇敢、诚实）的养成而非规则或后果，受亚里士多德启发。
6. Meta‑ethics Key Terms | 元伦理学关键术语
Is‑ought gap (Hume’s law): The claim that one cannot derive an evaluative ‘ought’ statement solely from descriptive ‘is’ premises without a normative bridge.
是-应当鸿沟（休谟法则）：不可单纯从描述性 ‘是’ 的前提推导出评价性 ‘应当’ 陈述，除非有规范性桥梁。
Naturalistic fallacy: G.E. Moore’s charge that defining ‘good’ with any natural property (e.g., pleasant) commits a mistake, as ‘good’ is indefinable.
自然主义谬误：摩尔指责用任何自然属性（如愉快）定义 ‘善’ 均犯下错误，因 ‘善’ 是不可定义的。
Open question argument: Moore’s argument: for any proposed natural definition of ‘good’, we can meaningfully ask ‘Is that truly good?’, showing they are not identical.
开放问题论证：摩尔的论证：对任何提议的 ‘善’ 的自然定义，我们仍可追问 ‘那真的是善吗？’，表明它们并不等同。
Moral motivation internalism: The view that moral judgments necessarily motivate the agent to act, unless practical irrationality intervenes.
道德动机内在主义：认为道德判断必然驱动行为者行动，除非实践非理性干预。
Supervenience in ethics: Moral properties are thought to supervene on natural properties; two identical natural states must share the same moral properties.
随附性在伦理学中：道德属性被认为随附于自然属性，两个相同的自然状态必须具有相同的道德属性。
7. Argument and Logic Terms | 论证与逻辑术语
Deductive argument: An argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. If premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
演绎论证：结论必然从前提推出的论证，若前提真则结论必真。
Inductive argument: The premises provide probable support for the conclusion, but do not guarantee it. Science often uses inductive reasoning.
归纳论证：前提为结论提供概率性支持但不保证其真，科学常使用归纳推理。
Validity: A property of deductive arguments where IF premises are true, the conclusion logically follows. Validity concerns structure, not actual truth.
有效性：演绎论证的一种属性：若前提为真，结论逻辑上随之成立，关乎结构而非实际真假。
Soundness: A deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.
健全性：有效且所有前提皆真的演绎论证，健全论证保证结论为真。
Abduction (inference to the best explanation): Reasoning from data to the hypothesis that would, if true, best explain it. Frequently used in philosophy of religion.
溯因（最佳解释推理）：从数据推导出若真则能最佳解释该数据的假设，常见于宗教哲学。
Counterexample: A particular case that contradicts a general claim, showing the claim to be false. Crucial for testing definitions.
反例：与普遍断言相矛盾的特定情形，用以证明断言为假，对检验定义至关重要。
Reductio ad absurdum: A mode of argument that assumes a proposition, derives an absurdity, and thereby concludes the negation of the original assumption.
归谬法：一种论证方式，假设某命题为真，推导出荒谬结果，从而否定原假设。
Infinite regress: A chain of justification or explanation that goes on forever without foundational stopping point, threatening scepticism.
无限回溯：确证或解释链条无限延续而无休止，可能导向怀疑论。
8. Quick Reference to Key Philosophers | 关键哲学家速查
Plato: Argued for the tripartite soul and Forms; emphasised reason’s role in accessing true knowledge (a priori reminiscence).
柏拉图：主张灵魂三分与理型论，强调理性在通达真知（先验回忆）中的作用。
Aristotle: Developed virtue ethics with the doctrine of the mean; championed empirical investigation and a posteriori knowledge.
亚里士多德：以中庸之道发展美德伦理学，倡导经验探究与后验知识。
David Hume: Empiricist who questioned causality and the self; identified the is‑ought gap; argued reason is the slave of the passions.
大卫·休谟：质疑因果与自我的经验主义者，指出是-应当鸿沟，主张理性是激情的奴隶。
Immanuel Kant: Deontological moral philosopher; proposed the categorical imperative and synthesised rationalism with empiricism in epistemology.
伊曼努尔·康德：义务论道德哲学家，提出定言命令，在认识论中综合唯理论与经验论。
J.S. Mill: Rule utilitarianism and qualitative hedonism; defended liberty and the harm principle beside moral philosophy.
约翰·斯图尔特·密尔：规则功利主义与质性快乐主义，在道德哲学之外捍卫自由与伤害原则。
G.E. Moore: Advanced non‑naturalism, the naturalistic fallacy, and the open question argument in Principia Ethica.
G.E.摩尔：在《伦理学原理》中倡导非自然主义、自然主义谬误与开放问题论证。
A.J. Ayer: Logical positivist who defended emotivism, claiming ethical statements merely express feelings and are meaningless cognitively.
A.J.艾耶尔：逻辑实证主义者，捍卫情绪主义，主张伦理陈述仅表达情感，认知上无意义。
R.M. Hare: Proposed universal prescriptivism; moral judgments are prescriptions that are universalisable, blending non‑cognitivism with reasoning.
R.M.黑尔：提出普遍规定主义，道德判断是可普遍化的规定，结合非认知主义与理性推理。
9. Effective Memorisation Tactics | 高效速记策略
Flashcards with contrastive pairs: Write the term on one side and the precise definition with an example on the other. Pair opposites (realism vs anti‑realism) to reinforce distinctions.
对比卡片法：一面写术语，另一面写精确定义加例子。将对立术语配对（如实在论与反实在论）强化区分。
Acronyms for criteria: For JTB remember ‘JTB – Justified True Belief’. For arguments like the open question, create a mnemonic like ‘OG – Open Good’ to recall Moore’s point.
首字母缩写：JTB 即 ‘确证的真信念’。对于开放问题论证，可用 ‘OG – 开放的善’ 助记摩尔要点。
Concept mapping: Draw a diagram linking ‘knowledge’ to its tripartite analysis, Gettier problems, and responses like reliabilism. Visual pathways strengthen recall.
概念图示：画出将 ‘知识’ 与三元分析、盖提尔问题及可靠主义等回应连接的图示，视觉路径强化记忆。
Use of analogies: Coherentism as a web of stories supporting each other; foundationalism as a building resting on unshakeable bedrock. Embed in concrete images.
类比法：融贯论如彼此支撑的故事网，基础主义如建造于不可动摇的基岩上的建筑。嵌入具体形象。
Self‑testing with explanations: After reviewing a term, close the book and explain it aloud in simple English, then check accuracy. The retrieval effort deepens memory traces.
自测解释：复习术语后合上书本，用简单英语大声解释，然后核对准确度。提取努力深化记忆痕迹。
Apply terms to brief scenarios: Invent a mini thought experiment applying ‘utility’ or ‘categorical imperative’ to a moral dilemma. Pragmatic engagement anchors meaning.
情景应用：虚构微型思想实验，将 ‘功利’ 或 ‘定言命令’ 应用于道德困境，实践参与锚定意义。
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