📚 Year 12 CCEA Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Reference Guide | Year 12 CCEA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is the first crucial step towards excelling in the CCEA AS Level Philosophy course. This quick-reference guide breaks down the key terms and concepts you will encounter across epistemology, moral philosophy, philosophy of mind and metaphysics. Each entry is presented with a clear definition in English immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent, helping you build a solid bilingual foundation for essays, discussions and revision.
掌握哲学词汇是你在 CCEA AS 阶段哲学课程中取得优异成绩的关键第一步。这本速记指南为你梳理了认识论、道德哲学、心灵哲学和形而上学中常见的关键术语与概念。每个词条先给出清晰的英文定义，紧接着是中文对应解释，帮助你为论文写作、课堂讨论和备考打下扎实的双语基础。
1. Epistemology Essentials | 认识论核心术语
A priori knowledge is knowledge that is independent of experience, often justified by reason alone. Classic examples include mathematical truths such as 2 + 2 = 4 and logical deductions.
先验知识是不依赖于经验、仅凭理性即可获得的认识。典型例子包括数学真理如 2 + 2 = 4 和逻辑演绎。
A posteriori knowledge, by contrast, depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence. You know that it is raining outside a posteriori because you have looked out of the window or felt the drops.
后天知识则依赖于感官经验或经验证据。你知道外面正在下雨是后天的，因为你已经看过窗外或感受到了雨滴。
Propositional knowledge is often expressed as ‘knowledge that’ something is the case and is traditionally analysed in terms of justified true belief.
命题性知识通常表述为“知道某事实为真”，传统上被分析为经过辩护的真信念。
2. Justified True Belief & Gettier | 辩护的真信念与盖梯尔问题
The tripartite definition of knowledge states that S knows P if and only if P is true, S believes that P, and S is justified in believing that P. For decades this was the standard analysis in epistemology.
知识的三元定义指出，主体 S 知道命题 P 当且仅当 P 为真、S 相信 P 且 S 的相信是有辩护的。这一度是认识论中的标准分析。
A Gettier case is a counterexample that shows having justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge. In such cases, a person has a justified belief that happens to be true but only by luck, thereby undermining the traditional definition.
盖梯尔式反例表明拥有辩护的真信念并不足以构成知识。在这类情形中，主体持有辩护的信念，且该信念恰好为真，但纯属运气，从而瓦解了传统定义。
In response, some philosophers introduce a no false lemmas condition, insisting that the belief must not be inferred from anything false. Others appeal to reliabilism, where knowledge is produced by a reliable cognitive process.
作为回应，一些哲学家引入了“无误导前提”条件，要求该信念不能从任何错误信息推导得出。另一些则诉诸可靠主义，认为知识是由可靠的认知过程所产生的。
3. Rationalism vs Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalism is the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that some concepts and truths are innate. René Descartes famously argued for innate ideas such as the idea of God and the self.
理性主义认为理性是知识的主要来源，某些概念和真理是天赋的。勒内·笛卡尔著名地论证了上帝和自我的观念等天赋观念。
Empiricism claims that all knowledge ultimately derives from sensory experience. John Locke described the mind at birth as a tabula rasa, a blank slate on which experience writes.
经验主义主张所有知识最终都来自感觉经验。约翰·洛克将初生的心灵描述为 tabula rasa（白板），经验在其上书写。
The distinction between analytic and synthetic truth is essential here. An analytic proposition is true in virtue of meaning alone, such as ‘all bachelors are unmarried,’ whereas a synthetic proposition requires world-checking, like ‘the cat is on the mat.’
分析命题与综合命题的区分在此至关重要。分析命题仅凭意义即为真，如“所有单身汉都未婚”；综合命题则需要经验证实，如“猫在垫子上”。
4. Scepticism & Perception | 怀疑论与感知
Philosophical scepticism questions whether we can have any knowledge at all. Global scepticism holds that we know nothing, while local scepticism targets a specific area such as knowledge of the external world.
哲学怀疑论质疑我们是否能够拥有任何知识。全面怀疑论认为我们一无所知，而局部怀疑论则针对特定领域，如关于外部世界的知识。
Direct realism is the common-sense view that we perceive physical objects directly as they are. It faces the challenge of illusions and hallucinations, where what we perceive does not correspond to reality.
直接实在论是一种常识性观点，认为我们直接感知到物理对象本身。它面临错觉和幻觉的挑战，在这些情况下我们所感知的与现实并不相符。
Indirect realism posits that we perceive mind-dependent sense data, which represent physical objects. However, this invites the veil of perception problem: if we only ever perceive sense data, how do we know that a mind-independent world exists?
间接实在论认为我们感知的是依赖于心灵的“感觉材料”，它们表征物理对象。但这引出了感知帷幕难题：如果我们只能感知感觉材料，又怎能知道独立于心灵的外部世界存在？
5. Metaphysics Fundamentals | 形而上学基础
Metaphysics investigates the fundamental nature of reality, including concepts like being, existence, time and causality. Two central issues in AS Philosophy are free will and personal identity.
形而上学探究实在的根本性质，包括存在、实存、时间和因果性等概念。AS 哲学中的两个核心议题是自由意志和人格同一性。
Determinism holds that every event, including human actions, is the inevitable result of prior causes. Hard determinism claims this is incompatible with free will, so free will is an illusion.
决定论认为每一个事件，包括人类行为，都是先前原因的必然结果。强硬决定论声称这与自由意志不相容，因此自由意志是一种幻觉。
Compatibilism, or soft determinism, maintains that free will is compatible with determinism if we define freedom as acting according to one’s desires without external coercion, even though those desires are themselves determined.
相容论（或称温和决定论）主张，如果将自由定义为根据自身欲望行动而不受外在强制，即使这些欲望本身是被决定的，自由意志就与决定论相容。
6. Philosophy of Mind: Dualism | 心灵哲学：二元论
Substance dualism asserts that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct substances. Descartes argued that the mind is a non-physical thinking substance, while the body is extended in space.
实体二元论断言心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体。笛卡尔主张心灵是非物理的思维实体，而身体是在空间中广延的实体。
The indivisibility argument claims that the body is always divisible into parts, whereas the mind is a single unified consciousness and therefore must be non-physical. The conceivability argument holds that I can clearly conceive of myself existing without a body, which suggests mind and body are distinct.
不可分割性论证指出身体总是可分割为部分，而心灵是单一统一的意识，因此必然是非物质的。可设想性论证则认为，我能够清晰地设想自己脱离身体存在，这表明心灵与身体是不同的。
The interaction problem remains the most persistent objection: how can a non-physical mind causally interact with a physical body in a way consistent with the laws of physics?
互动问题是二元论面临的最顽固的反对意见：非物理的心灵如何以一种与物理定律一致的方式与物理身体发生因果互动？
7. Philosophy of Mind: Physicalism | 心灵哲学：物理主义
Physicalism maintains that everything is ultimately physical, and mental states are nothing over and above physical states. The identity theory claims that mental states are identical to brain states, just as lightning is identical to electrical discharge.
物理主义主张一切都最终是物理的，心理状态无非就是物理状态。同一论声称心理状态与大脑状态同一，就像闪电等同于放电一样。
Functionalism defines mental states in terms of their causal roles: a state is desire if it tends to cause certain behaviours given certain inputs. This allows for the possibility of multiple realizability, where the same mental state can be realised by different physical substrates, such as neurons or silicon chips.
功能主义用因果角色来定义心理状态：如果某状态在特定输入下倾向于引发某些行为，那么它就是欲望。这允许多重可实现性，即同一种心理状态可由不同的物理基质实现，比如神经元或硅芯片。
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience, such as the redness of red or the pain of a headache. Physicalist theories struggle to explain why qualia exist at all — the ‘hard problem’ of consciousness.
感受质是指意识经验中主观的、定性的方面，比如红色的红感或头痛的疼痛感。物理主义理论难以解释感受质为何存在——这就是意识的“困难问题”。
8. Personal Identity | 人格同一性
The question of personal identity asks what makes a person the same over time, despite physical and psychological changes. The bodily continuity theory suggests that we persist in virtue of the continuity of our physical organism.
人格同一性问题探讨的是，是什么让一个人在经历身体与心理变化后仍然是同一个人。身体连续性理论认为，我们之所以持续存在，是因为物理有机体的连续性。
The psychological continuity theory, associated with John Locke, claims that memory and psychological connections are what constitute personal identity. A person at time T2 is the same as a person at T1 if T2 remembers T1’s experiences.
与洛克相关联的心理连续性理论主张，记忆和心理联结构成了人格同一性。T2 时间点的人与 T1 时间点的人是同一个，如果 T2 能记得 T1 的经历。
Thought experiments like the teletransporter or brain transplant test our intuitions. If your psychological patterns were uploaded into a new body, would that still be you? Different theories give different answers.
远程传送器或大脑移植等思想实验检验着我们的直觉。如果你的心理模式被上传到一个新身体，那还是你吗？不同的理论会给出不同的答案。
9. Meta-Ethics: Meaning of Moral Language | 元伦理学：道德语言的意义
Cognitivism is the view that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false. For instance, the statement ‘murder is wrong’ makes a factual claim about the world.
认知主义认为道德陈述表达的是可真可假的信念。例如，“谋杀是错误的”这个陈述对世界做出了事实性断言。
Non-cognitivism holds that moral utterances do not aim to state facts; instead they express emotions, such as ‘Boo to murder!’ (emotivism) or universal prescriptions, such as ‘Do not murder!’ (prescriptivism).
非认知主义则认为道德话语并非陈述事实，而是表达情感，如“谋杀，呸！”（情感主义）；或是给出普遍指令，如“不要谋杀！”（指令主义）。
Error theory, proposed by J.L. Mackie, is a cognitivist view that asserts all moral claims are systematically false because there are no objective moral properties to make them true. He appeals to the argument from relativity and the argument from queerness.
错误理论由麦凯提出，是一种认知主义观点，主张所有道德断言系统性地为假，因为根本不存在能使它们为真的客观道德属性。他诉诸相对性与怪异性的论证。
10. Normative Ethics | 规范伦理学
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory stating that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or utility. Act utilitarianism evaluates individual actions, while rule utilitarianism evaluates rules that tend to promote the greatest good.
功利主义是一种后果论理论，认为正确的行为就是能使总体幸福或功利最大化的行为。行为功利主义评价单个行为，而规则功利主义评价那些倾向于促进最大善的规则。
Deontology, associated with Kant, focuses on duties and rules. The categorical imperative commands that we act only according to maxims that can be willed as universal laws, and that we treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.
与康德相关联的义务论以义务和规则为核心。绝对命令要求我们只按照能够同时意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动，并且始终将人性作为目的，而绝不仅仅作为手段。
Virtue ethics shifts the focus from acts to the agent’s character. Aristotle argued that the good life involves cultivating virtues such as courage, temperance and practical wisdom (phronesis), aiming at eudaimonia, often translated as flourishing.
德性伦理将关注点从行为转向行动者的品格。亚里士多德认为，好生活在于培养勇气、节制和实践智慧等德性，追求 eudaimonia，常译为“幸福”或“繁荣”。
11. Philosophy of Religion: The Problem of Evil | 宗教哲学：恶的问题
The logical problem of evil argues that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God is logically incompatible with the existence of evil. If God can prevent evil and wants to, why is there evil?
逻辑上的恶之问题论证说，一位全能、全善的上帝与恶的存在在逻辑上不兼容。如果上帝能够并且想要阻止恶，为什么还会有恶？
The free will defence counters that God gave humans free will because it is a great good, and the possibility of moral evil is a necessary consequence of this gift. A world with free agents is more valuable than a world of puppets.
自由意志辩护回应说，上帝赋予人类自由意志是因为它是一种极大的善，而道德恶的可能性是这份馈赠的必然结果。一个有自由行动者的世界比一个只有提线木偶的世界更有价值。
The evidential problem of evil focuses on the sheer amount and distribution of apparently pointless suffering, such as animal suffering or the suffering of innocent children, which seems hard to reconcile with a loving God. This challenges not the logical possibility, but the probability of God’s existence.
证据上的恶之问题聚焦于大量表面上毫无意义的苦难，比如动物的苦难或无辜儿童的苦难，这似乎难以与一位慈爱的上帝相容。它挑战的不是上帝存在的逻辑可能性，而是其存在的概率。
12. Exam-Focused Memory Techniques | 考试速记技巧
Create bilingual flashcards with the term on one side and a concise definition in both languages on the other. Active recall with spaced repetition is proven more effective than passive reading. Link new terms to vivid mental images or familiar stories.
制作双语抽认卡，正面写术语，背面写包含中英双语的精简定义。有间隔的主动回忆比被动阅读更有效。将新术语与生动的心理图像或熟悉的故事联系起来。
For each theory, master the STRIPE structure: State the view, Trace its key argument, Raise an objection, Illustrate with a thought experiment, Propose a reply, Evaluate overall strength. This template will anchor your essays across all AS topics.
对于每一理论，掌握 STRIPE 结构：陈述观点、追溯其核心论证、提出一个反对意见、用思想实验举例说明、给出一个回应、评价总体说服力。这个框架能帮你稳固地写出覆盖所有 AS 主题的论文。
Practise writing short bilingual definitions under timed conditions. During revision, try to explain a concept like ‘qualia’ or ‘the categorical imperative’ aloud in both English and Chinese; if you can do this fluently, you genuinely understand it.
在限时条件下练习写出简短的双语定义。复习时，尝试用英语和中文解释像“感受质”或“绝对命令”这样的概念；如果你能流利地做到，就说明你真正理解了。
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