📚 Year 12 WJEC Physics: Quick Reference Formula & Theorem Handbook | WJEC 12年级物理:公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook covers all the essential formulas, theorems and definitions needed for the Year 12 WJEC Physics course. It is designed for rapid revision and in-class use, ensuring you have the key relationships at your fingertips for topics from mechanics to quantum phenomena.
这份速查手册涵盖了 WJEC 12年级物理课程所有必备的公式、定理和定义。它专为快速复习和课堂使用而设计,确保你熟练掌握从力学到量子现象章节中的关键关系式。
1. Base Quantities and SI Units | 基本量与SI单位
All physical quantities in the WJEC specification are expressed in SI base units. Know the seven base quantities: length (metre, m), mass (kilogram, kg), time (second, s), electric current (ampere, A), temperature (kelvin, K), amount of substance (mole, mol) and luminous intensity (candela, cd).
WJEC 大纲中的所有物理量均采用国际单位制(SI)基本单位。须熟记七个基本量:长度(米, m)、质量(千克, kg)、时间(秒, s)、电流(安培, A)、温度(开尔文, K)、物质的量(摩尔, mol)和发光强度(坎德拉, cd)。
Common prefixes used in data: tera (T) = 10¹², giga (G) = 10⁹, mega (M) = 10⁶, kilo (k) = 10³, deci (d) = 10⁻¹, centi (c) = 10⁻², milli (m) = 10⁻³, micro (µ) = 10⁻⁶, nano (n) = 10⁻⁹, pico (p) = 10⁻¹².
常用词头:太(T)=10¹²,吉(G)=10⁹,兆(M)=10⁶,千(k)=10³,分(d)=10⁻¹,厘(c)=10⁻²,毫(m)=10⁻³,微(µ)=10⁻⁶,纳(n)=10⁻⁹,皮(p)=10⁻¹²。
Homogeneity of equations: every term in a valid physical equation must have the same base units. Checking units is a powerful way to detect errors.
方程量纲一致性:任何有效的物理方程中,各项的基本单位必须相同。检查单位是发现错误的强有力方法。
2. Kinematics | 运动学
The four SUVAT equations describe uniform acceleration in a straight line. They connect initial velocity u, final velocity v, acceleration a, displacement s and time t.
四个 SUVAT 方程描述直线匀加速运动,它们将初速度 u、末速度 v、加速度 a、位移 s 和时间 t 联系起来。
v = u + a t
公式 1:末速度 = 初速度 + 加速度 × 时间。
s = u t + ½ a t²
公式 2:位移 = 初速度 × 时间 + ½ × 加速度 × 时间的平方。
v² = u² + 2 a s
公式 3:末速度的平方 = 初速度的平方 + 2 × 加速度 × 位移。
s = ½ (u + v) t
公式 4:位移 = 平均速度 × 时间,其中平均速度 = (初速度 + 末速度)/2。
For motion under gravity, a is replaced by g = 9.81 m s⁻² near the Earth’s surface. The sign convention must be consistent (e.g., upward positive).
对于重力作用下的运动,加速度 a 用地球表面附近的重力加速度 g = 9.81 m s⁻² 代替。符号约定必须一致(例如向上为正)。
Velocity–time graphs: gradient gives acceleration, area under graph gives displacement.
速度–时间图:斜率表示加速度,图线下方面积表示位移。
3. Dynamics and Newton’s Laws | 动力学与牛顿定律
Newton’s first law: an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a resultant force.
牛顿第一定律:若物体不受合力作用,则静止或保持匀速直线运动状态。
ΣF = m a (Newton’s second law)
牛顿第二定律:合力 = 质量 × 加速度。
Newton’s third law: if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal and opposite force on body A. These forces are of the same type and act on different bodies.
牛顿第三定律:若物体 A 对物体 B 施加一个力,则 B 同时对 A 施加一个等大反向的力。这两个力属于同种性质的力且作用在不同物体上。
p = m v (linear momentum)
动量定义:动量 = 质量 × 速度。
F Δt = Δp (impulse = change in momentum)
冲量–动量定理:合力 × 作用时间 = 动量的变化量。
The principle of conservation of momentum: in a closed system with no external forces, total momentum before a collision equals total momentum after.
动量守恒定律:在无外力的封闭系统中,碰撞前总动量等于碰撞后总动量。
4. Work, Energy and Power | 功、能和功率
Work is done when a force moves its point of application. For a constant force at angle θ to displacement:
当力的作用点发生位移时做功力。对于与位移夹角为 θ 的恒力:
W = F s cos θ
功 = 力 × 位移 × cos(夹角)。当力和位移同向时 θ = 0,W = F s。
E_k = ½ m v² (kinetic energy)
动能 = ½ × 质量 × 速度的平方。
ΔE_p = m g Δh (change in gravitational potential energy near Earth’s surface)
重力势能变化 = 质量 × 重力加速度 × 高度变化。
Principle of conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores.
能量守恒定律:能量不能被创造或毁灭,只能在不同能量储存间传递。
P = W / t or P = F v (power; for a constant force moving at velocity v)
功率:P = 功 / 时间;或者当恒力作用在速度为 v 的物体上时,P = F v。
Efficiency = useful energy output / total energy input
效率 = 有用能量输出 / 总能量输入。
5. Materials: Stress, Strain and Young Modulus | 材料:应力、应变与杨氏模量
Hooke’s law: extension ΔL is proportional to applied force F, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.
胡克定律:在不超过弹性极限时,伸长量 ΔL 与所施加的力 F 成正比。
F = k ΔL
F = 弹簧常数 × 伸长量。
Stress, strain and the Young modulus describe the intrinsic stiffness of a material, independent of sample dimensions.
应力、应变和杨氏模量描述材料本身的刚性,与样品尺寸无关。
σ = F / A (tensile stress)
拉应力 = 拉力 / 横截面积。
ε = ΔL / L (tensile strain)
拉应变 = 伸长量 / 原始长度。
E = σ / ε (Young modulus)
杨氏模量 = 应力 / 应变。
Elastic strain energy stored in a stretched wire = ½ F ΔL. For a spring obeying Hooke’s law, this equals ½ k (ΔL)².
储存在拉伸金属丝中的弹性势能 = ½ F ΔL。对于遵从胡克定律的弹簧,等于 ½ k (ΔL)²。
6. Electric Current, Potential Difference and Resistance | 电流、电势差与电阻
Current is the rate of flow of charge. For a steady current:
电流是电荷流动的速率。对于恒定电流:
I = ΔQ / Δt
电流 = 电荷变化量 / 时间。
Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done per unit charge. The volt is a joule per coulomb.
电势差(p.d.)是单位电荷所做的功。伏特即每库仑的焦耳数。
V = W / Q
电势差 = 功 / 电荷量。
Resistance is defined as the ratio of p.d. to current. Ohm’s law states that V ∝ I for a metallic conductor at constant temperature.
电阻定义:电势差与电流之比。欧姆定律指出,在温度不变时,金属导体满足 V ∝ I。
R = V / I
电阻 = 电势差 / 电流。
For resistors in series: R_total = R₁ + R₂ + …
串联:总电阻 = 各电阻之和。
For resistors in parallel: 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
并联:总电阻的倒数 = 各电阻倒数之和。
7. Resistivity and Temperature Dependence | 电阻率及其温度依赖性
Resistance depends on the material and the geometry of the conductor:
电阻取决于材料和导体的几何形状:
R = ρ L / A
电阻 = 电阻率 × 长度 / 横截面积。
ρ is the resistivity (Ω m), a material property. For most metals, resistivity increases with temperature. An approximate linear model is:
ρ 为电阻率(单位:Ω m),是材料的属性。大多数金属的电阻率随温度上升而增加。近似线性模型为:
R = R₀ (1 + α Δθ)
R = 参考温度下的电阻 R₀ × (1 + 温度系数 α × 温度变化 Δθ)。
A source of e.m.f. has internal resistance r. The terminal p.d. V is less than the e.m.f. E when the source delivers a current I:
电源具有内阻 r。当电源输出电流 I 时,端电压 V 低于电动势 E:
E = I (R + r) and V = E – I r
电动势 = 电流 × (外电阻 + 内阻);端电压 = 电动势 – I r。
8. Potential Divider Circuits | 电位分压电路
A potential divider uses two resistors in series to provide a fraction of the input voltage. For resistors R₁ and R₂ connected across a supply V_in, the output voltage across R₂ is:
电位分压器利用两个串联电阻提供输入电压的一部分。若电阻 R₁ 和 R₂ 串联后接在电源 V_in 上,则 R₂ 两端的输出电压为:
V_out = V_in × R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)
输出电压 = 输入电压 × R₂/(R₁ + R₂)。
This circuit is widely used to supply a variable p.d. or to interface sensors such as thermistors and LDRs. When the resistance of a sensor changes, V_out changes accordingly.
该电路广泛用于提供可调电压或连接热敏电阻和光敏电阻等传感器。当传感器阻值变化时,V_out 随之改变。
In a potentiometer arrangement, a null measurement can determine an unknown e.m.f. without drawing current.
在电位计装置中,通过零偏测量可测定未知电动势,且不吸取电流。
9. Waves: Basic Properties | 波动:基本性质
Waves transfer energy without net movement of matter. In transverse waves oscillations are perpendicular to energy propagation; in longitudinal waves they are parallel.
波传递能量而不引起介质的净移动。横波的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直;纵波的振动方向与之平行。
v = f λ
波速 = 频率 × 波长。
Refraction occurs when a wave enters a medium of different wave speed. The absolute refractive index of a medium is:
当波进入波速不同的介质时会发生折射。介质的绝对折射率为:
n = c / v
折射率 = 真空光速 c / 介质中波速 v。
Snell’s law relates the angles of incidence and refraction:
斯涅尔定律将入射角和折射角联系起来:
n₁ sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂
n₁ sin(入射角) = n₂ sin(折射角)。
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle C. For light going from medium of refractive index n to air (n ≈ 1):
当入射角大于临界角 C 时发生全内反射。光从折射率为 n 的介质射向空气(n≈1)时:
sin C = 1 / n
sin(临界角) = 1 / n。
10. Superposition and Interference | 叠加与干涉
The principle of superposition: when two waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacements.
叠加原理:两列波相遇时,合位移等于各分位移的矢量和。
For constructive interference, path difference = n λ (or phase difference = 0,
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